Biology Final

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dominant

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the allele, in a set of two alleles in a heterozygous individual, that affects the trait

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recessive

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the allele, in a set of two alleles in a heterozygous individual, that does not appear to affect the trait

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homozygous

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when two alleles are the same (ex: PP or pp)

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heterozygous

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when the two alleles are different (ex: Pp)

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carrier

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individual who has one copy of the allele for a recessive disorder and does not exhibit the symptoms

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genotype

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the genetic makeup; the combination of alleles (ex: PP)

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phenotype

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the observable trait caused by genetic makeup (ex: purple flowers)

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incomplete dominance

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a form of intermediate inheritance in which the two alleles are blended and cause a mixed outcome of the two (ex: red and white = pink flowers)

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codominance

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when a heterozygote expresses the traits of both alleles. not intermediate; the separate traits of both alleles are shown. (ex: red and white flowers)

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testcross

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breeding an individual of unknown genotype but dominant phenotype with a homozygous recessive individual, to reveal the first plant's genotype

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pedigree

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family tree that records and traces the occurence of a trait in a family.
square = male,
circle = female,
colored show the trait
uncolored do not

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punnett square

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a diagram that shows all possible outcomes of a genetic cross. you can use it to predict outcome probabilities if genotypes of parents are known

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nondisjunction

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when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis

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monosomy

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chromosome abnormality when one chromosome is missing from the normal chromosome number

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trisomy

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chromosome abnormality when there is an extra chromosome. (ex: Down's syndrome has three chromosomes on 21)

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autosome

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any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. occurs in pairs in somatic cells and singly in gametes

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deletion

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change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is deleted

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inversion

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change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the original chromosome is reversed and flipped

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translocation

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change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a different chromosome

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duplication

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change to a chromosome in which part of the chromosome is repeated

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genetic engineering

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manipulating the genes of a plant to get desired results; usually to get more useful traits

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Law of Independent Assortment

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when gametes are formed, the two alleles separate and combine with the other two separated alleles

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point mutation

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a mutation in DNA when only one nucleotide base changes

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frameshift mutation

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a genetic mutation caused by the insertion or deletion of a group of nucleotide bases, that therefore shifts all of the bases down and alters the protein

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polyploidy

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when an organism or cell has more than two haploid sets of chromosomes

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restriction enzymes

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enzyme that cuts sugar-phosphate bonds in the DNA backbone at specific points within particular nucleotide sequences in DNA

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recognition site

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the nucleotide sequence that the restriction enzyme recognizes, and is where the enzyme cuts

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gel electrophoresis

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technique for sorting fragments of molecules by length

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DNA fingerprinting

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an individual's unique banding pattern on an electrophoresis gel, determined by restriction fragments of the person's DNA

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recombinant DNA

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a DNA molecule made from combined genes from different sources

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"sticky ends"

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a fragment of DNA where a cut was staggered on the DNA using restriction enzymes and there is a row of unpaired nucleotides

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plasmid

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small, circular DNA molecule found in baceria that is separate from the bacterial chromosome

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sex-linked gene

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any gene that is located on a sex chromosome (X or Y chromosome)

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sex-limited genes

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genes that are carried on in the X-chromosome

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sex-influenced genes

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genes that, in males, might be dominant, but in females might be recessive, even though it is the same trait

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linked genes

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any pair of genes that have to be transmitted together

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multiple alleles

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three or more alternative forms of a gene existing in a population; only two of which can be present in a diploid organism

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polygenic traits

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traits that are the combined effect of two or more genes on a single character

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DNA structure

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made up of 4 nucleotides, each made up of a ring-shaped sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base, a single or double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms with functional groups

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DNA nucleotides

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pyrimidines: thymine, cytosine. purines: adenine, guanine

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Human Genome Project

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an international scientific research project designed to study and identify all of the genes in the human genome, to determine the base-pair sequences in human DNA, and to store this info in computer databases

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DNA extraction

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the removal of DNA from the cells or viruses where it is normally found

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population

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group of individuals of the same species living in a particular area at the same time

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community

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a collection of interacting populations that live in the same ecosystem

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ecosystem

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consists of the living communities and the nonliving factors in an environment

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antiparallel

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two molecules that run side by side in opposite directions

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genome

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complete set of an organism's genetic material.

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codon

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in RNA, a three-letter "word" that codes for one amino acid

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anticodon

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in tRNA, a triplet of nitrogenous bases that is complementary to a specific codon in RNA

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applications of transgenic organisms

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when an organism is given genetic material from another species that provides a useful trait

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Down's Syndrome

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a genetic disorder characterized by a broad skull, blunt facial features, short stature, and learning disabilities

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Klinefelter Syndrome

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a chromosome abnormality that affects only men. also called 47 X-X-Y Syndrome because people born with this are born with at least one extra X chromosome

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Turner Syndrome

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a rare chromosomal disorder of females characterized by short stature and the lack of sexual development during puberty

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Cystic Fibrosis

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a hereditary disease starting in infancy that affects various glands and results in secretion of thick mucus that blocks internal passages, including the lungs, causing respiratory problems

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Huntington's Disease

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caused by a gene in a chromosome band. it is a progressive, degenerative disease causing nerve endings in your brain to wear away, leading to death

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karyotype

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the display of a person's 46 chromosomes; characterization of the chromosome complement of a species, arranged based on shape, type, number, etc.

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species

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a distinct form of life

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variation

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difference among members of a species

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adaptation

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an inherited characteristic that increases an organism's ability to survive/reproduce in an environment

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evolution

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all of the changes that have transformed life over a long period of time

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fitness

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contribution that an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation compared to other individual's contributions

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mutations

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any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

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survival of the fittest

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another name for natural selection; those with well-suited adaptations will flourish

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allele frequency

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alternative forms of a gene

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acquired characteristics

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hypothesis that when an organism uses/disuses a body part, it is/is not passed down to its offspring/ develop certain characteristics

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biosphere

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all of the parts of the planet that are inhabited by living things

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gene pool

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all of the alleles in all of the individuals that make up a population

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speciation

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the origin of new species

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artificial selection

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"selective breeding;" when the parents are chosen and breeded to produce offspring with genetic traits that humans value

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natural selection

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when individuals that have characteristics that are adapted and well-suited to their environments leave more offspring

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Lamarck's theory

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the theory that life evolves, or changes, and that species are not permanent, and that evolution is a process of adaptation

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Darwin's theory

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he believed that Earth is ancient and that species change over time. believed that species today evolved from ancestral species, and also the theory of natural selection, that there is variation within a population and some variations are favorable

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gradualism

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the idea that speciation occurs by the small, gradual accumulation of new species over long periods of time

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biome

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major type of terrestrial ecosystem that covers a large region of Earth

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Mendel

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experimented with plants and recorded inheritance patterns

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Malthus

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wrote an essay saying much of human suffering, like hunger, was due to the human population's ability to grow

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Lyell

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developed the idea of uniformitarianism, that the Earth was shaped by slow moving forces

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Wallace

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proposed a theory of evolution due to natural selection, which led to Darwin's ideas

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evidence of evolution

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evidence such as fossil records, geographic distribution, and similarities in structure and development in animals

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fossils

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preserved remains or markings left by organisms that lived in the past, mostly found in sed. rock

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comparative anatomy

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certain similarities in structure among species provide clues to evolutionary history

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vestigial structures

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remnants of structures that may have had important functions in ancestral species, but no function in modern descendants

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comparative biochemistry

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comparing relationships between species. if two species have closely matched genes and proteins, they were probably inherited from a common ancestor