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83 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Anaerobic pathways
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Evolved first
Don’t require oxygen Start with glycolysis in cytoplasm Completed in cytoplasm |
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Aerobic pathways
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Evolved later
Require oxygen Start with glycolysis in cytoplasm Completed in mitochondria |
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Equation for Aerobic Respiration
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C6H1206 + 6O2 yields 6CO2 + 6H20
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What do role do NAD and FAD play in aerobic respiration?
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FAD accept electrons and hydrogen
Become NADH and FADH2 Deliver electrons and hydrogen to the electron transfer chain |
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Glycolysis
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requires energy to begin 2 ATP. then releases energy at the end 4ATP net yield 2ATP. The products of the first part are split into three-carbon pyruvate molecules
ATP and NADH form. |
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Preparatory reactions
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Pyruvate is oxidized into two-carbon acetyl units and carbon dioxide
NAD+ is reduced |
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Krebs cycle
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The acetyl units are oxidized to carbon dioxide
NAD+ and FAD are reduced |
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The complete breakdown of 2 pyruvates yeilds
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Eight NADH, two FADH 2, and two ATP are the payoff from the complete break-down of two pyruvates in the second-stage reactions.
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What happens to the carbon atoms from the pyruvate?
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The six carbon atoms from two pyruvates diffuse out
of the mitochondrion, then out of the cell, in six CO |
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What does the Krebs cycle require to keep going that replenishes itself after every reaction?
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oxaloacetate
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Acetyl coA reacts with citrate in the Krebs Cycle
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ok
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Reactants of Krebs cycle
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Acetyl-CoA
3 NAD+ FAD ADP and Pi |
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Products of the Krebs cycle
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Coenzyme A
2 CO2 3 NADH FADH2 ATP |
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What we have after glycolysis, prep reaction, and krebs cycle
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Glycolysis 2 NADH
Preparatory reactions 2 NADH Krebs cycle 2 FADH2 + 6 NADH Total 2 FADH2 + 10 NADH |
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Where does electron transfer phosphorylation occur at?
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in the mitochondria
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What can't NADH do?
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CAn't go to the outer compartment is kept in the inner compartment of the mitochondria.
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Summary of what's made in each stage
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Glycolysis
2 ATP formed by substrate-level phosphorylation Krebs cycle and preparatory reactions 2 ATP formed by substrate-level phosphorylation Electron transport phosphorylation 32 ATP formed |
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Can NADH formed in the cytoplasm enter the mitochondria?
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NO. The electrons and hydrogen are taken from it and shuttled across the membrane then NAD+ and FAD receiva electrons. If FAD receives the electron than 4ATP produced. If NAD receives the electron than 6ATP are produced.
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Anarobeic pathways
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Do not use oxygen
Produce less ATP than aerobic pathways Two types Fermentation pathways Anaerobic electron transport |
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Fermentation pathways
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Begin with glycolysis as well but they don't break it all the way down to carbon dioxide and water. only 2 ATP yield from glycolysis other steps serve only to regenerate NAD+
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Anaerobic electron transfer chain.
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carried out by certain bacteria in the bacterial plasma membrane final acceptor is an organic compound such as nitrate not as efficeint as oxygen so ATP yield is low.
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What did they originally think hereditary information was made of?
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A blend. What was wrong with the blending theory? Would expect variation to disappear
Variation in traits persists |
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Who was the founder of modern genetics?
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Gregor Mendel
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Genes
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Units of information about specific traits
Passed from parents to offspring Each has a specific location (locus) on a chromosome |
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Alleles
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Different molecular forms of a gene
Arise by mutation Dominant allele masks a recessive allele that is paired with it |
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Homozygous
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Having two of the same alleles at a locus such as AA or aa
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Heterozygous
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Having two different alleles at a locus such as Aa
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Genotype
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Genotype refers to particular genes an individual carries
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Phenotype
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Phenotype refers to an individual’s observable traits
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can we determine genotype by observing phenotype?
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Cannot always determine genotype by observing phenotype
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Dihybrid Cross
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Experimental cross between individuals that are homozygous for different versions of two traits
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Independent Assortment
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Members of each pair of homologous chromosomes are sorted into gametes at random during meiosis
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Why is O blood type best?
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Recipient’s immune system will attack blood cells that have an unfamiliar glycolipid on surface
Type O is universal donor because it has neither type A nor type B glycolipid |
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Epistasis
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Interaction between the products of gene pairs
responsible for color in labradore retrievers |
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When is crossing over more likely?
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When the sections are further apart.
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Continuous Variation
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A more or less continuous range of small differences in a given trait among individuals
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Philedelphia chromosome
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first chromosome disfunction associated with cancer
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autosomal dominant inheritance trait
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typically appears in every generation
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Why can't we get rid of these diseases
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People often pass it on before they realize they even have it.
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Autosomal inheritance recessive patterns
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If parents are both heterozygous, child will have a 25% chance of being affected
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The Y Chromosome
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Fewer than two dozen genes identified
One is the master gene for male sex determination SRY gene (sex-determining region of Y) SRY present, testes form SRY absent, ovaries form |
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The X Chromosome
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Carries more than 2,300 genes
Most genes deal with nonsexual traits Genes on X chromosome can be expressed in both males and females |
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X-Linked Recessive Inheritance
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Males show disorder more than females
Son cannot inherit disorder from his father |
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Examples of X linked traits
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Color blindness
Inability to distinguish among some of all colors Hemophilia Blood-clotting disorder 1/7,000 males has allele for hemophilia A Was common in European royal families |
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what can happen to chromosomes to mess them up?
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duplication, deletion, and inversion, and translocation
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Aneuploidy
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Individuals have one extra or less chromosome
(2n + 1 or 2n - 1) Major cause of human reproductive failure Most human miscarriages are aneuploids |
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Polyploidy
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Individuals have three or more of each type of chromosome (3n, 4n)
Common in flowering plants Lethal for humans 99% die before birth Newborns die soon after birth |
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Genetic Disorder why don't they disappear?
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Mutation introduces new rare alleles
In heterozygotes, harmful allele is masked, so it can still be passed on to offspring |
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Which organisms use energy?
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ALL
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Where do photosynthesizers get their energy?
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from the sun
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Animals get energy from?
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Animals get energy second- or third-hand from plants or other organisms
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What is true of all energy?
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Regardless, the energy is converted to the chemical bond energy of ATP
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How is ATP made in plants and animals?
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Plants make ATP during photosynthesis
Cells of all organisms make ATP by breaking down carbohydrates, fats, and protein |
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Two coenzymes talked about in chapter 8 and their roles.
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NAD+ and FAD accept electrons and hydrogen
Become NADH and FADH2 Deliver electrons and hydrogen to the electron transfer chain |
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Probability
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The chance that each outcome of a given event will occur is proportional to the number of ways that event can be reached
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Mendel’s Theory of Segregation
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An individual inherits a unit of information (allele) about a trait from each parent
During gamete formation, the alleles segregate from each other |
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Dihybrid cross ratio
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9:3:3:1
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incomplete dominance ratio
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1:2:1
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Marfan syndrome
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Mutation in gene for fibrillin affects skeleton, cardiovascular system, lungs, eyes, and skin
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Odd fact about brilliant people.
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Emotionally healthy people who show creative brilliance tend to have personality traits in common with the mentally impaired (p186)
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Genes in Eukaryotes and where are they found?
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Units of information about heritable traits
In eukaryotes, distributed among chromosomes Each has a particular locus Location on a chromosome |
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Homologous chromosomes and autosomes Ch 12
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Homologous autosomes are identical in length, size, shape, and gene sequence
Sex chromosomes are nonidentical but still homologous Homologous chromosomes interact, then segregate from one another during meiosis |
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Alleles Facts Ch 12
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Diploid cell has a pair of alleles at each locus
Alleles on homologous chromosomes may be same or different |
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Karyotype cells
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these are stopped at metaphase because they are easiest to identify then broken open and stained and viewed through a microscope.
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How do chromosomes lead to cancer?
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Some genes on chromosomes control cell growth and division
If something affects chromosome structure at or near these loci, cell division may spiral out of control This can lead to cancer |
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How does the Philedelphia chromosome cause cancer?
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Reciprocal translocation
Causes chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) |
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Huntington Disorder
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Autosomal dominant allele
Causes involuntary movements, nervous system deterioration, death Symptoms don’t usually show up until person is past age 30 People often pass allele on before they know they have it |
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Achondroplasia
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Autosomal dominant allele
In homozygous form usually leads to stillbirth Heterozygotes display a type of dwarfism Have short arms and legs relative to other body parts |
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Galactosemia
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Caused by autosomal recessive allele
Gene specifies a mutant enzyme in the pathway that breaks down lactose |
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Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria
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Mutation causes accelerated aging
No evidence of it running in families Appears to be dominant Seems to arise as spontaneous mutation Usually causes death in early teens |
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Fragile X syndrome
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An X-linked recessive disorder
Causes mental retardation Mutant allele for gene that specifies a protein required for brain development Allele has repeated segments of DNA |
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Duplication
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Gene sequence that is repeated several to hundreds of times
Duplications occur in normal chromosomes May have adaptive advantage Useful mutations may occur in copy |
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Deletion
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Loss of some segment of a chromosome
Most are lethal or cause serious disorder |
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Inversion
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A linear stretch of DNA is reversed
within the chromosome |
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Translocation
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A piece of one chromosome becomes attached to another nonhomologous chromosome
Most are reciprocal Philadelphia chromosome arose from a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22 |
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Down Syndrome
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Trisomy of chromosome 21
Mental impairment and a variety of additional defects Can be detected before birth Risk of Down syndrome increases dramatically in mothers over age 35 |
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Turner Syndrome
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Inheritance of only one X (XO)
98% spontaneously aborted Survivors are short, infertile females No functional ovaries Secondary sexual traits reduced May be treated with hormones, surgery |
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Klinefelter Syndrome
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XXY condition
Results mainly from nondisjunction in mother (67%) Phenotype is tall males Sterile or nearly so Feminized traits (sparse facial hair, somewhat enlarged breasts) Treated with testosterone injections |
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XYY Condition
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Taller than average males
Most otherwise phenotypically normal Some mentally impaired Once thought to be predisposed to criminal behavior, but studies now discredit |
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Genetic abnormality
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A rare, uncommon version of a trait
Polydactyly Unusual number of toes or fingers Does not cause any health problems View of trait as disfiguring is subjective |
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Genetic Disorder
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Inherited conditions that cause mild to severe medical problems
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Why don't genetic disorders disappear?
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Mutation introduces new rare alleles
In heterozygotes, harmful allele is masked, so it can still be passed on to offspring |
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Phenotypic Treatments of genetic disorders
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Symptoms of many genetic disorders can be minimized or suppressed by
Dietary controls Adjustments to environmental conditions Surgery or hormonal treatments |
