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162 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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emergent properties
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result from the way in which components interact
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deductive reasoning
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applies general principles to specific results
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inductive reasoning
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specific observations construct general scientific principles
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reductionism
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understanding a complex system by reducing to working parts
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homologous
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same evolutionary origin but differs in structure and function
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analogous
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similar in structure and function but differs in evolutionary origin
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phylogenetic tree
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pattern of decent
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atomic number
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number of protons
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atomic mass
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sum of masses of protons and neutron
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cation
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positive atom
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mass number
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number of protons and neutrons, superscript
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anion
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negative atom
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isotope
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element with some protons but different neutrons
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radioactive isotope
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atom with unstable nucleus
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quanta
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specific amount of energy
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oxidation
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loss of an electron
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reduction
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gain of an electron
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redox reactions
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one atom is oxidized and another is reduced in same reaction
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octet rule
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atoms want a full shell, 1 s orbital and 3 p, except first row in periodic table
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organic compound
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mainly C H O N, must contain carbon
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molecule
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group of atoms in a stable association, only one element
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compound
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molecule of different elements
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ionic bond
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forms crystals, one donates electron to other, now oppositely charged so they attract
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covalent bond
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sharing of electrons, polar or non-polar
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electronegativity
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high electronegativity = negative charge, low electronegativity = positive charge
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reactant
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original molecules before reaction
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3 factors of a chemical reaction
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tempterature, concentration, catalysts
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hydrogen bond
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form between partially negative O in water and partially positive hydrogens in other compounds
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high specific heat
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water heats up slowly and maintains heat
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evaporation
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cools the surface
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hydrophobic exclusion
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tendency of nonpolar molecules to aggregate in water
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mole
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the weight of a substance in grams that corresponds to the atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule of a substance
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acid
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produces H, less than 7
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base
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removes H, higher than 7
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buffer
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a substance that resists change in pH, releases or absorbs H
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hydrocarbon
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CH
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hydroxyl
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OH
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carbonyl
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C = O
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carboxyl
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COOH
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amino
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NH
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sulfhydryl
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SH
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phosphate
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PO4
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methyl
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CH3
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isomer
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same chemical formulas but different structure therefore different functions
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steroisomer
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different in attatchment to skeleton
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enanisomer
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mirror images
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dehydration reactions
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remove OH and H to form macromolecule
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hydrolysis
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hydrogen attached to one subunit, OH attached to other to break specific covalent bond
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carbohydrates
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carbon:hydrogen:oxygen - 1:2:1, energy storage
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monosaccharides
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3-6 carbons, simple sugars
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glucose
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6 carbon monosaccharide, C6H12O6, alpha or beta
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sucrose
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glucose and fructose combined
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polysaccharides
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long polymers made up on monosaccharides
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starch
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storage polysaccaride, entirely alpha glucose
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cellulose
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cannot be broken in humans, structural polysaccharides, all beta glucose
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amylose
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simplest starch structure
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glycogen
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starch in animals, insoluable polysaccharide containing branched amylose chains
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chitin
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in arthropods/fungi, polymer of n-acetyglucosamine, forms exoskeleton
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nucleotides
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long polymer, subunits of nucleic acid, contain pentose (5 carbon sugar), phosphate (PO4) and organic nitrogenous
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nucleic acid
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chain of 5 carbon sugars linked by phosphodiester bonds with nitrogenous base protruding from each sugar
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purines
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large, double ring molecules in DNA and RNA; adenine an guanine
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pyrimidines
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smaller, single-ring molecules, cytosine, thymine (DNA), uracil (RNA)
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amino acid
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amino group (NH2) and carboxyl group (COOH), hydrogen and R side group
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peptide bond
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dehydration led to covlent bond between NH of one amino acid and COOH of other
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polypeptide
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amino acids linked by peptide bonds, forms protein
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primary structure
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amino acid sequence in protein=s
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secondary structure
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hydrogen bonds with water or peptide groups, alpha = spiral, beta = pleated
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tertiary
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brought together by hydrophobix eclusion, locked by disulfide bonds, determined by primary
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quaternary
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arrangement of polypeptide chains into functional units
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motifs
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supersecondary structure, similarities between dissimilar proteins
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domains
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functional units within a larger structure; substructure within the tertiary structure, performance differs in different parts of protein structure
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chaperone proteins
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help other proteins to fold correctly
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denaturation
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environment is altered causing proteins to change shape or unfold permanently
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dissociation
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subunits of quaternary structure can dissociate without losing tertiary structure, can reassemble
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lipids
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insoluble, high proportion of nonpolar carbon-hydrogen bonds, gather in water
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fatty acids
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long chain of hydrocarbons (CH) with carboxyl group (COOH) at one end
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glycerol
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3 carbon polyalcohol (3 OH groups)
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triglycerol
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3 fatty acid tails, one to each carbon in the glycerol backbone
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saturated
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fatty acid with all carbon atoms bonded to at least 2 hydrogen atoms
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unsaturated fatty acid
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double bonds between one or more pairs of successive carbon atoms
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polyunsaturated
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more than one double bond in fatty acid
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terpenes
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long-chain lipids that are components of pigment (chlorophyll, visual pigment retinal)
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phospholipids
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form membranes, glycerol (3 carbon alcohol), 2 fatty acid tails and phosphate group (PO4), heads are polar, tails are nonpolar
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micelles
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phospholipid spheres, tails face inward
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prokaryotes
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single circular DNA, no internal membranes, rigid cell wall, archaea, bacteria
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nucleiod
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area in prokaryotes were DNA gathers, not contained by membrane
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cytoplasm
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all dugars, amino acids and proteins the cell uses, aqueous medium
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cytosol
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part of cytoplasm that contains organic molecules and ions in solution
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difference between bacteria and archaea
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membrane lipids differ in chemical structure, archaea membrane is monolayer
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flagella
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long, threadlike protein structures protruding from the surface of a cell that are used in locomotion
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eukaryotic cells
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more complex, compartmentalize, have cytoskeleton
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central vacuole
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stores proteins, pigments and waste material
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vesicles
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smaller sacs that store and transport materials
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nucleolus
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region in nucleus where intensive synthesis of ribosomal RNA takes place
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nuclear envelope
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two phospholipid bilayer membranes
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nuclear pores
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locations where two membrane layers pinch together. formed by proteins, allows small molecules to diffuse freely (mostly proteins and RNA)
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chromatin
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in eukaryotes, when cell is not dividing, DNA organized by proteins
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nucleoli
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area of ribosomal subunit manufacturing
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ribosomal RNA
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a subunit of a subunit of a ribosome
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messenger RNA
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mRNA; carries coding information from DNA
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transfer RNA
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tRNA; carries amino acids
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free ribosomes
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synthesize proteins that are in cytoplasm, nuclear proteins, mitochondrial proteins and proteins in other organelles
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membrane-associated ribosomes
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synthesize membrane proteins, proteins in endomembrane system and proteins for export
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endoplasmic reticulum
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phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, series of folds in cell
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cisternal space
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lumen, inner region of the ER
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rough ER
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ribosomes on exterior, synthesize proteins destined for export from cell, sent to lysosomes or vacuoles, or embedded in plasma membrane
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smooth ER
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contains enzymes to catalyze reactions for carbohydrates and lipids, steroid hormones, membrane lipids, stores Ca+
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golgi apparatus
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flattened stacks of membranes, collects, packs and distributes molecules synthesized at one location to be used at another
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cis face
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receiving end of the golgi, usually near the ER
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trans face
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exit from the golgi, material released into secretory vesicles
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cisternae
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flattened, stacked membrane folds in golgi
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lysosomes
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membrane bound digestive vesicles, arise form golgi, break down and recycle organelles or kill cell
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actin filaments
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long fibers composed of to protein chains loosely twined together
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microtubule
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largest of cytoskeleton elements, hollow tubes comprised of ring of 12 protein protofilaments
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intermediate filaments
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middle size in cytoskeleton, provide structure stability, weaved
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centrioles
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barrel shaped organelles in animals, occur in pairs at right angles, near nuclear membrane, help with formation of microtubules
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what affects diffusion
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surface area, temperature, concentration gradient, distance
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nucleoid
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center of cell where DNA gathers, no membrane, in prokaryotes
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cytosol
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part of the cytoplasm that contains organic molecules and ions in solution
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transport proteins
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move molecules and ions across the plasma membrane (out/in)
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receptor proteins
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induce changes within the cell when they come in contact with specific molecules
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markers
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receptor proteins that identify type of cell
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function of cell wall (Bacteria)
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protect cell, give shape, prevent excess uptake or loss of water
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archaea
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differ from bacteria due to nature of membrane lipids, monolayer membranes (can't adapt to temp. changes)
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flagella
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long threadlike structures protruding from the surface of a cell used for locomotion
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vesicles
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smaller sacs that store and transport a variety of materials through cell (plant and animal)
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central vacuole
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only plants
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nucleolus
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region of intensive synthesis of ribosomal RNA
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nuclear envelope
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two phospholipid bilayers binding nucleus, continuous with ER
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nuclear pore
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two membrane layers in nuclear envelope pinch together to allow small molecules to diffuse freely and control for proteins and RNA-protein complexes
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nuclear lamins
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intermediate filament fibers that give nucleus its shape
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chromatin
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structure of DNA and proteins
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messenger RNA
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carries coding information from DNA, first synthesis of protein
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transfer RNA
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carried amino acids
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phagocytosis
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bringing in of food material
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microbodies
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enzyme bearing, membrane enclosed vesicle
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peroxisome
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type of microbody, contains enzymes involved in oxidation of fatty acids
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contractile vacuole
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in plant cell, can pump water out of cell
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tonoplast
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membrane surrounding the central vacuole, has channels for water to control for tonicity (osmotic balance)
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mitochondria
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tubular, bound by two membranes, have own DNA, generate ATP
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matrix
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inside inner membrane in mitochondria
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intermembrane space
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between the two mitochondrial membranes
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chloroplasts
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contain photosynthesis pigment chlorophyll, larger, more complex, two membranes,
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grana
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closed compartments of stacked membranes in chloroplasts
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thylakoids
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disk shaped structures, a dozen on a grana, light capturing pigment
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lipid raft
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microdomain heavily enriched with cholesterol which fills space between the phospholipids, packing them more tightly
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fluidity of membrane
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saturated fats = less fluid bc tightly packed, unsaturated fats = more fluid, increasing temp= more fluid,
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transporter
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channels or carrier proteins allow things across cell
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enzymes (membrane)
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carry out chemical reactions on the interior surface of the plasma membrane
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cell surface receptors
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sensitive to chemical messages on surface
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cell-to-cell adhesion proteins
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specific glue to hold cells to one another, some temporary some permanent
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attachments to the cytoskeleton
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surface proteins that interact with other cells are often anchored to cytoskeleton by linking proteins
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anchoring of proteins
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anchoring molecules are modified lipids that have nonpolar region that inset into internal portion of bilayer and chemical bonding domains that link directly to proteins
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transmembrane domain
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membrane spanning region of a protein, hydrophobic amino acids in alpha helices
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pores in membrane
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formed by beta sheets of proteins, creates pore for molecule to go through
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phosphodiester bonds
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linkage between two sugars in backbone of a nucleic acid
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nucleic acid
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a nucleotide polymer (DNA, RNA)
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peroxisomes
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microbody that plays a role in breakdown of highly oxidative hydrogen peroxide
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microbody
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a cellular organelle bound by a single membrane and containing a variety of enzymes
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dynein
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molecular motor that brings vesicles form early endosome to late endosome
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dynamin
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gtpase that is responsible for endocytosis
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myosin
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motor protein in muscle contraction
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