Biology/chemistry Review

Front 1

Smallest to largest- how things make up each other

Back 1

Atom→Molecule→Macromolecule→Organelle/(Living) Cell→Tissue→Organ→Organ System→ Organism

Front 2

Structure of matter

Back 2

Cells are the basic units of structure and function for living things on Earth, BUT all cells are composed of non-living atoms.

Front 3

Atomic Nuclei

Back 3

Contains almost all the weight of the atom

Front 4

Protons

Back 4

Positively charged particles inside the nucleus

Front 5

Neutrons

Back 5

Neutral particles inside the nucleus

Front 6

Electron Shell

Back 6

Negligible weight, multiple “layers” that contain specific numbers of electrons at various states (1st=2, 2nd=8, 3rd=18, etc…)

Front 7

Atomic Number

Back 7

The number of protons in one atom of an element (which is usually also the number of electrons)

Front 8

Atomic Weight

Back 8

The number of protons + the number of neutrons (because almost all of the mass in the atom is found in the nucleus)

Front 9

Major elements in the body

Back 9

Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur, Chlorine, Sodium, Magnesium (99.9% of makeup/ rest is trace)

Front 10

Water (inorganic substance)

Back 10

-The universal solvent (dissolves many substances)

-Chemical transport throughout the body

-Absorption and transport of heat

Front 11

Oxygen (inorganic substance)

Back 11

-Transported by blood and erythrocytes

-Used to release energy during cell respiration

Front 12

Carbon Dioxide (inorganic substance)

Back 12

Waste product of cellular metabolism

Front 13

Salts (inorganic substance)

Back 13

-Important for cellular transport, muscle contraction and nerve impulse conduction

-Ex: Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca²+, Mg²+, Po₄-³, Co₃-², HCO₃, So₄-²

Front 14

pH

Back 14

Percentage of H+ ions to H₂O

Front 15

pH 7+

Back 15

Base

Front 16

pH 7-

Back 16

Acid

Front 17

Electrolytes

Back 17

Compounds that release ions (charged atoms), when they dissolve in H₂O

-Ex. HCl: Releases H+ and Cl- ions in H₂O (Acid)

-Ex. NaOH: Releases Na+ and OH- ions in H₂O (Base)

Front 18

When 2 or more atoms join (bond) they form a?

Back 18

Molecule

Front 19

Bonding of different atoms creates a?

Back 19

Compound

Front 20

Atoms that combine by sharing atoms is called?

Back 20

Covalent Bonding

Front 21

Atoms that combine by losing/gaining electrons is called?

Back 21

Ionic Bonding

Front 22

What is the goal of (most) atoms?

Back 22

To become stable

Front 23

The more unstable an atom is...

Back 23

The more easily it bonds

Front 24

The most stable elements are?

Back 24

The Noble Gases (Completely fied outer shells; are inert)

Front 25

Photosynthesis

Back 25

Conversion of Light Energy to Chemical Energy

Front 26

Cellular Respiration

Back 26

Breakdown of Chemical Energy from Photosynthesis (sugars) into usable Cellular Energy (ATP)

Front 27

Glycolysis

Back 27

Glucose to pyruvic acid (limited ATP and NADH production)

Front 28

Kreb’s Cycle

Back 28

Remaining pyruvic acid breakdown into intermediate energy (FADH2, NADH)

Front 29

Electron Transport Chain

Back 29

Conversion of intermediate energy into ATP

Front 30

Anabolic Reactions

Back 30

The buildup of large molecules from small ones; requires energy

Front 31

Exampes of Anabolic Reactions

Back 31

-Chains of simple sugars to form complex sugars

-Chains of fatty acids and glycerol to form fats

-Chains of amino acids to form proteins

Front 32

Catabolic Reactions

Back 32

The breakdown of large molecules into small ones; releases energy

Front 33

Example of Catobolic Reaction

Back 33

Disaccharide Sucrose broken down into monos glucose and fructose

Front 34

Enzymes

Back 34

-Special proteins that control the activation of all metabolic reactions

-Lowers the activation energy required to start the reaction (catalyst)

-NOT consumed or chemically altered during the reaction

-Each binds with a specific substrate (chemical reaction site)

-Affected by heat radiation, electricity, other chemicals, and pH

Front 35

Carbohydrates- Molecules

Back 35

C, H, O (2*H VS. O-think H₂O ratio!)

Front 36

Carbohydrates- Sructure

Back 36

-Chains of rings of carbon (varying lengths) Simple sugars (monosaccharides)- 6 carbon sugars ie. glucose, fructose, galactose

-Complex sugars- composed of more than one simple sugar

~2= disaccharides ie. lactose, sucrose

~2+= polysaccharides ie. glycogen and plant starch

Front 37

Carbohydrates- Job(s)

Back 37

Usable and stored cellular energy, building blocks for cell structures

Front 38

Protein- Molecules

Back 38

C, H, O, N, (S)

Front 39

Protein- Structure

Back 39

-Lines of amino acids corrected by peptide bonds and wound into different shapes by hydrogen bonds

-~20 different amino acids; common ending groups, different “R” groups

-NH2 (amino group)

-COOH (carboxyl group)

Front 40

Protein- Job(s)

Back 40

Structural units, energy, hormones, cell receptors, antibodies and enzymes

Front 41

Protein Digestion

Back 41

-Broken down into amino acids and absorbed/transported in the blood to cells then…

~Re-combined by cells into different proteins OR

~Used as energy sources

*Deaminated in the liver (and excreted as urea)

*Remaining deaminated parts are sent to Kreb’s Cycle to be decomposed and stored as ATP, or remade into either glucose or fat

Front 42

Lipids

Back 42

-Organic, water insoluble (but organic solvent-soluble, ie. Chloroform, Ether)

-Broken down into Glycerol (which is broken down by Kreb’s Cycle or can be transformed into glucose) and fatty acids (which are broken down in Acetyl CoA to be sent to the Kreb’s Cycle)

-Examples: Fats, Phospholipids, Steroids

Front 43

Lipids-Fats- Molecules

Back 43

C, H, O (but less O than carbs)

Front 44

Lipids-Fats-Structure

Back 44

-1 glycerol with 3 fatty acid chains (triglyceride)

-The glycerol remains the same for each fat, the fatty acids differ

~Saturated- carbon atoms all singly bonded to each other with the max number of H bonds

~Unsaturated- one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, so less overall H bonds (many double bonds is Polyunsaturated)

Front 45

Lipids-Fats-Job(s)

Back 45

Energy storage (more energy per gram than carbs)

Front 46

Lipids-Phospholipids

Back 46

-Similar to fats in structure and composition

-But… only 2 fatty acid chains and a phosphate group

-The fatty acid portion (tail) is water insoluble- “Hydrophobic”

-The phosphoric portion (head) is water soluble- “Hydrophilic”

-Compose the cell membrane

Front 47

Lipids-Steroids

Back 47

-Complex rings of carbon atoms

-Examples: Cholesterol, Sex hormones, (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone), Adrenal hormones

Front 48

What are the three parts to Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)?

Back 48

-Pentose sugar- deoxyribose (opposed to just ribose)

-Phosphate backbone

-Nitrogenous base (1 per nucleotide)

Front 49

Nitrogenous bases (1 per nucleotide)

Back 49

-Adenite- double ring purine(DNA & RNA)

-Guanine- double ring purine (DNA & RNA)

-Cytosine- single ring pyrimidine (DNA & RNA)

-Thymine- single ring pyrimidine (Only DNA)

-Uracil- single ring pyrimidine (Only RNA)

Front 50

Transcription

Back 50

-Process of converting a gene from its original DNA template into mRNA (messenger RNA)

-This creates mRNA “triplets” or codons that calls for one amino acid

Front 51

Translation

Back 51

Each mRNA codon matches up to one specific tRNA anticodon carrying the amino acid assigned by the original DNA gene

Front 52

The Cell Cycle

Back 52

The life cycle of a cell begins with G1 and ends with Cytokinesis, upon which the two new cells independently re-start Interphase at the G1 phase

Front 53

ALL cells proceed through ______ before going to _______ or ________

Back 53

1. Interphase | 2. & 3. Mitosis or Meiosis

Front 54

G1 phase

Back 54

cells increase in size and duplicate organelle

Front 55

S phase

Back 55

synthesis phase, ALL chromosomes are duplicated (92)

Front 56

G2 phase

Back 56

cells make proteins needed for reproduction and then WAIT TO BE TOLD TO REPRODUCE

Front 57

Mitosis and Meiosis

Back 57

Processes of cellular respiration

Front 58

Mitosis

Back 58

-Body cells

-Diploid to diploid

-1 cycle each of Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis

-Produces identical daughter cells

Front 59

Meiosis

Back 59

-Sex cells

-Diploid to haploid

-1 cycle of Interphase, 2 “rounds” of P,M,A,T, Cytokinesis

-Produces genetically unique sperm/eggs

Front 60

Cell Differentiation

Back 60

-Fertilized eggs (zygotes) and the first hundreds of cells made from the early divisions have the potential to develop into ANY cell of the body - undifferentiated

-As cells continue to divide, they specialize (differentiate) by:

~Structure

~Function

~Location ALL cells have the DNA to become -ANY cell in the body BUT as they specialize, only certain genes are activated so they can do their specific job

Front 61

Cellular Biology- Physical Science Recall

Back 61

-Substances like gases and liquids will move apart from one another until they are equally spaced out – “in equilibrium”

-This is a natural, energy free process

-The flow of molecules “with the concentration gradient” (high concentration to low concentration) - ie. Passive Transport

-The flow of molecules “against the concentration gradient” (low concentration to high concentration) requires energy – ie. Active Transport

Front 62

Passive Transport

Back 62

-Diffusion - Movement of small, uncharged particles

-Osmosis - Movement of water molecules

-Facilitated Diffusion - Movement of large and/or charged particles, requires use of channel proteins

Front 63

Active Transport

Back 63

-Usually these are large, shape-specific molecules, but any that have to go against the gradient need to be transported this way

-Requires the use of a carrier protein

-Examples: Sodium/Potassium Pump (Na/K Pump), Endocytosis and Exocytosis (use of vesicles to engulf and/or release particles)