Biology Chapter 4-5-Definition

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light microscope (LM)

Back 1

an optional instrument with lenses that refract (bend) visible light to magnify images and project them into a viewer's eye or onto photographic film

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micrograph

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a photograph taken through a microscope

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cell theory

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the theory that all living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from other cells

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electron microscope (EM)

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a microscope that uses magnets to focus an electron beam through, or onto the surface o,f a specimen. An electron microscope achieves a hundredfold greater resolution than a light microscope

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scanning electron microscope (SEM)

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a microscope that uses an electron beam to study the fine details of cell surfaces or other specimens

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transmission electron microscope (TEM)

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a microscope that uses an electron beam to study the internal structure of thinly sectioned specimens

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plasma membrane

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the membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier to the passage of ions and molecules into and out of the cell; consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

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prokaryotic cells

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a type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea

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eukaruotic cells

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a type of cell that has a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles. All cells except those in the domains Bacteria and Archaea are this type of cell.

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chromosome

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a threadlike gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell and most visible during mitosis and meisosis; also the main gene-carrying structure of a prokaryotic cell. A chromosome consists of one very long piece of chromatin, a combination of DNA and protein

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ribosome

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a cell structure consisting of RNA and protein organized into two subunits and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells, the ribosomal subunits are constructed in the nucleus

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cytoplasm

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the contents of a eukaryotic cell between the plasma membrane and the nucleus; consists of a semifluid medium and organells; can also refer to the interior of a prokaryotic cell

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nucleoid

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a dense reigon of DNA in a prokaryotic cell

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flagellum

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a long cullular appendage specialized for locomotion. The flagella of a prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in both structure and function. Likcika, eukaryotic flagella have a 9+2 arrangment of microtubes covered by the cell's plasma membrane

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organelle

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a membrane-enclosed structure with a specialized function with in a cell

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Cellular Metabolism

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all the chemical activitiess of a cell

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Nucleus

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(1) an atom's central core containg proteins and neutrons;(2) the genetic control center of a eukaryotic cell

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Chromatin

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the combination of DNA and proteins that constitutes eukaryotic chromosomes; often used to refer to the diffuse, very extended form taken by chromosomes when a cell is not divided

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Nuclear Envelope

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a double membrane that encloses the nucleus perforated with pores that regulate traffic with the cytoplasm

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Nucleolus

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a structure within the nucleus where ribosomal RNA is made and assembled with proteins imported from the cytoplasm to make ribosomal subunits

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endomembrane system

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a network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles

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vesicle

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a sac made of membrane in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell

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endoplasmic reticulem (ER)

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an extensive membranous network in a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough) and ribopsome-free (smooth) reigons.

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smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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that portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that lacks ribosomes.

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rough endoplasmic reticulum

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that portion of the endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes attached that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins

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glycoprotein

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a protein with one of more short chains of sugars attached to it

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transport vesicle

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a small membranous sac in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell. The vesicle buds from the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi and eventually fuses with another organelle or the plasma membrane, releasing its contents.

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Golgi apparatus

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an organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of membranous sacs that modify, store, and ship products of the endoplasmic reticulum.

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lysosome

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a digestive organelle in eukaryotic cells; contains hydrolytic enzymes that digest food or damaged organells.

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vacuole

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a membrane-enclosed sac that is a part of the endomembrane system of a eukaryotic cell and has diverse functions.

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central vacuole

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Ina plant cell, a large membranous sac with diverse roles in grwoth and the storage of chemicals and wastes.

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peroxisome

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an organells containg enzymes that transfer hydrogen atoms from various substrates to oxygenn, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.

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mitochondrion

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an organells in eukaryotic cells where cellular respiration occurs. Enclosed by two membranes, it is where most of the cell's ATP is made.

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mitochondrial matrix

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the compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containg enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle.

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chloroplast

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an organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic molecules (sugars) from carbon dioxide

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stoma

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a pore surronded by guard cells in the epidermis of a leaf. When stomata are open, CO2 enters a leaf and water and O2 exit. A plant conserves water when its stomata are closed.

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thylakoid

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a flattened membranous sac inside a chloroplast. Thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and the molecular complexes of the light reactions of photosynthesis. A stack of thyroids is called a granum.

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granum

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a stack of membrane-bounded thylakoids in a chloroplast. Grana are the sites where light energy is trapped by chloropyll and converted to chemical energy during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

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endosymbiont theory

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a theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts origniated as prokaryotic cells engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. The engulfed cell and its host then evolved into a single organism.

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cytoskeleton

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a network of protein fibers in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell; includes microfilaments, intermidiate filaments, and microtubles

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microfilament

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the thinnest of three main kinds of protein fibers making up the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a solid, helical rod composed of the globular protein action.

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intermediate filament

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an intermidiate-sized protein fiber that is one of the three main kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. Intermidiate filaments are ropelike, made of fibrous proteins

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microtubule

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the thickest of the three main kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a hollow tube made of globular proteins called tubulins; found in cilia and flagella

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cilium

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a short appendage specialized for locomotion, formed from a core of nine outer doublet microtubules and two single microtubles (the 9=2 pattern covereed by the cell's plasma membrane.

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extracellular matrix

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the meshwork surronding animal cells; consists of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.

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integrins

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a transmembrane protein that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton

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cell wall

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a protective layer external to the plasma membrane in plant cells, bacteria, fungi, and some protists; protects the cell and helps maintain its shape.

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plasmodesma

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an open channel in a plant cell wall through which strands of cytosplasm connect from adjacent cells.

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What are the reasons for Carbon's importance?

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Its structure allows for 4 bonds; its abundance on Earth

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What is vitalism?

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idea that organic compounds arise only within living organisms or that only living things are capable of creating organic compounds (disproved)

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Who was Stanley Miller?

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scientist who took H2, H2O, CH4, NH3 and submitted them to an electric shock in an abiotic system and created amino acids (parts of living organisms)

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Mechanism

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all natural phenomena including the processes of life are governed by physical and chemical laws

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Who was Woehler?

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scientist who tried to disprove vitalism; studied urea and made from it acetic acid

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what is the name of the part of an amino acid that gives it its identity?

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R group

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What number of carbons usually forms rings?

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5-6 carbons

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Hydrocarbons

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molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen; extremely nonpolar (store lots of energy)

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Isomers

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molecules with the same molecular formula by different structures and properties

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3 types of isomers

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structural, geometric, enantiomers

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Structural Isomers

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differ in arrangement of carbon backbone

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Geometric

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placement of atoms around a double bond differs in the carbon backbone

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Enantiomers

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differ in placement of 2 groups around an asymmetric carbon (carbon with 4 different atoms attached)

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Functional groups

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chemically reactive groups of atoms within an organic molecule

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Hydroxyl

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(-OH); makes alchols; makes molecule polar and hydrophilic

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Carbonyl Ketone

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(-C = O) polar, hydrophilic placed within the carbon skeleton

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Carboxyl

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(-COOH (O=C-OH)) acids (hydrogen pops off) Hydrophilic

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Carbonyl Aldehyde

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O=C-H polar, hydrophilic; placement at end of skeleton

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Amino

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H-N-H makes molecules basic (able to pick up protein to become NH3+); hydrophilic

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Sulfhydryl

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R-SH; hydrophilic, polar

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Disulfide Bridge

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R-S-S-R, important for protein structure

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Phosphate

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acidic properties to molecule (can carry -2 charge), hydrophilic; important group in energy transfer, O (double bond); O-P-OH, OH

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4 types of macromolecules

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lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids

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Which macromolecules have a finite size?

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lipids

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Another word for condensation reaction is ....

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dehydration reactions

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For a condensation reaction to occur you need..

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ATP, enzyme, monomer w/ H, monomer with OH

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Hydrolysis

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process by which water molecules break the bonds between molecules

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During hydrolysis, ---- is added and ---- is released.

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water - added; energy - released

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Prefixes/ Suffixes that mean 'sugar'

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glyco-; -ose; -saccharide

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energy bonds in sugar

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nonpolar - store lots of energy

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straight chain sugars

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1 carbonyl + lots of hydroxyls

Front 80

If carbonyl group is within the carbon skeleton...

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ketose

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If carbonyl group is on end of carbon skeleton....

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aldose

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cellular respiration

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cells extract energy stored in glucose molecules

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When monosaccharides form rings, there are no...

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double bonded oxygens

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Link between 2 monosaccharides

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glycosidic linkage

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polysaccharies formed from only glucose monomers in plants and digestible by animals

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starch

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shape starch forms

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helix

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consists of glucose monomers, major storage form in animals

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glycogen

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places to find glycogen

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liver and muscles

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shape of glycogen

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branched helixes