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Cell History – Who was involved and what did they do?
1660 – Leeuwenhoek – microscope
1665 – Hooke – viewed cork cells
1831 – Brown – nucleus
1838 – Schleider & Schwan – cell theory
1846 – Purkenjie & Mohl – protoplasm
1888 – Schneider – chromosomes
1898 – Golgi – golgi bodies
1931 – Knoll & Ruska – electron microscope
Cell theory
–Cells are the basic unit of structure in all living organisms (All living things are made up of cells)
–Cells are the basic unit of function in all living organisms (Life occurs because of chemical reactions in cells)
–All cells come from pre–existing cells
Compare and contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
–Eukaryotes – contain a membrane bound nucleus (ex: plant cells, animal cells)
–Prokaryotes – do not have a "true" nucleus (ex: bacteria)
Cell (plasma) membrane
controls movement of materials in and out of the cell
Cell wall
protects and supports plant cells (plant cells only)
Chloroplast
responsible for photosynthesis (plant cells only)
Cytoplasm
all material in the cell except the nucleus (main functioning area of the cell)
Endoplasmic reticulum
responsible for the making and transportation of cell products
Golgi apparatus (body)
storing, packing, and transporting materials
Lysosome
contains enzymes for digesting food or cell parts (animal cells only)
Mitochondrion
energy producers
Nucleus
general control area of the cell
Nucleolus
makes ribosomes and helps with protein synthesis
Nuclear membrane (envelope)
controls movement of materials in and out of the nucleus
Ribosomes
make protein
Vacuole
storage for food, water, waste, etc. (large ones in plant cells only)
Centrosome
helps with cell division (animal cells only)
Chromatin (DNA, chromosomes)
threadlike structures that contain all the information about the cell (DNA)
Flagellum
helps move the cell
What must all cells and living organisms do?
–absorb nutrients to survive and grow
–convert nutrients to usable energy
–be able to reproduce
–eliminate wastes
Unicellular organisms
–only one cell
–must perform all cell functions
Multicellular organisms
–multiple cells
–often have specialized cells that carry out certain functions
–these cells cooperate with each other to carry on life
List differences between plant and animal cells
–Only plant cells contain a cell wall, chloroplast, and large vacuoles
–Only animal cells contain lysosomes and centrosomes
Passive transport
–passive transport is the movement of materials across the cell membrane that requires no energy from the cell
–particles are generally smaller and uncharged (neutral) and move from high to low transportation
Active transport
–the transport of molecules in and out of the cell that requires energy from the cell
–usually occurs when moving particles from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration
–larger charged particles (ions) are moved
–in this case a transport protein spins and takes substances across the membrane
What are 3 molecules that can diffuse across a bilipid membrane?
H2O, CO2, O2
Simple diffusion
movement of materials from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (H2O, CO2, and O2 can diffuse through cell membrane between the fat molecules or through a non–specific protein channel)
Facilitated diffusion
particles that are too big to go through the membrane are moved through a specific protein "carrier molecule" in the cell membrane
Osmosis
–diffusion of water across the cell membrane
–if some particles (ex: ions) cannot pass through the cell membrane, then water may pass in or out of the cell to balance the concentrations
Endocytosis
movement of large amounts of materials into a cell (usually nutrients) by the membrane wrapping around the material and "pinching off"
–Pinocytosis – tiny chunks (liquid)
–Phagocytosis – larger chunks (food)
Exocytosis
The movement of large amounts of materials (usually wastes) out of the cell by a vacuole moving to the cell membrane (opposite of endocytosis)
Cyclosis (cytoplasmic streaming)
–the passive movement of the cytoplasm and its contents (various organelles) around the cell
–aids with diffusion of particles within the cell
Tonicity
the concentration of ions (ex: salt) inside a cell, relative to the concentration of ions outside the cell in the surrounding solution
Hypertonic solution
–a cell is placed in a salt solution stronger in concentration than itself
–cell shrivels
Hypotonic solution
–a cell is placed in a salt solution weaker in concentration than itself
–cell expands
Isotonic solution
–a cell is placed in a salt solution equal in concentration to itself
–cell stays the same size
Plasmolysis
what happens to a plant cell when placed in a hypertonic solution (shrivels)
What are the stages of mitosis in order?
–Interphase
–Prophase
–Prometaphase
–Metaphase
–Anaphase
–Telophase
–Cytokinesis
What are the 3 stages of interphase?
–G1 – cell growth
–S – DNA is replicated
–G2 – cell grows again and prepares for cell division
List and explain the two subdivisions of cell division
–Mitosis – nuclear division
–Cytokinesis – actual division of the cytoplasm and pinching of the cell membrane into two cells
Interphase
stage before cell division where chromatin (DNA) replicate
Prophase
chromatin condense into chromosomes
Prometaphase
nuclear membrane breaks down and the spindle fibres attach to the chromosomes
Metaphase
chromosomes align along the middle of the cell (equatorial plate)
Anaphase
sister chromatids separate and are pulled apart to opposite poles
Telophase
chromosomes reach the poles and two new nuclei are formed, completing mitosis
Cytokinesis
the cytoplasm and its contents (organelles) are divided in half as the cell membrane pinches together (cleavage furrowing) resulting in two cells
Cell differentiation
–when a cell becomes specialized in order to perform a specific function
–becomes one of the 210 cell types in the body (skin cell, muscle cell, blood cell, etc)
Clone
an exact genetic copy of an organism
Explain the history of cloning in plants
–plants can clone themselves naturally
–humans can clone plants
What was the first animal cloned?
frog
How were the first mammals cloned?
the use of embryos
Enucleation
removing nucleus from an egg
Nuclear transfer
moving nucleus from from one cell into a enucleated egg
How did they prove Dolly was a clone?
genetic testing
Why do humans want to clone?
–reproductive purposes
–medical reasons
What are nature–made clones?
identical twins
Stem cells
special cells that can
–divide for indefinite periods
–turn into any of the 210 cells
What are the 3 potential applications of stem cells?
–drug testing
–genetic experiments
–cells and/or organ production
Pluripotent (embryonic) stem cells
–easy to work with
–able to replicate
How are stem cells obtained? (4)
–from embryos from IVF (in vitro fertilization)
–from fetal tissue obtained from terminated pregnancies
–somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
–adult stem cells
How are embryonic stem cells obtained?
from the inner cell mass of human embros
How are fetal stem cells obtained?
from the cell mass of human fetal tissue
Explain somatic cell nuclear transfer
–using cloning techniques
–using enucleation and nuclear transfer to create an inner cell mass containing stem cells
Cancer
uncontrolled cell division
Tumor
lumps or masses of tissue formed by uncontrollable cell division
Metastize
when a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows, invading and destroying other healthy tissues
Describe the 4 typical gene mutations that can often lead to cancer
–Oncogenes – tell cells when to divide (ON SWITCH)
–Tumor Supressor Genes – tell cells when not to divide (OFF SWITCH)
–Suicide Genes – tell the cell to kill itself
–DNA Repair Genes – instruct a cell to repair damaged DNA
What 3 elements are found in carbohydrates and in what ratio?
C, H, O, ratio 1:2:1
What are the building blocks of carbs?
Sugars (glucose)
What is the difference between a monosaccharide, disaccharide, and a polysaccharide?
–Monosaccharide – 1 sugar ring
–Disaccharide – 2 sugar rings
–Polysaccharide – more than 2 sugar rings
What is the basic molecular formula for a simple sugar
C6H12O6
What is the relationship between starch and glucose?
Starch is made of glucose
What is the chemical reaction called when two glucose are linked together?
Dehydration synthesis
Explain the difference between amylose and amylopectin
–Both are types of starch
–Amylose is straight chains of glucose
–Amylopectin is branched in chains of glucose
What is glycogen and why is it referred to as animal starch?
–A string of 15–24 glucose formed in a muscle or liver cell
–Plants store excess glucose in the form of starch (stored energy), and animals like humans store excess glucose in the form of glycogen (stored energy)
What 3 elements are found in lipids?
C, H, O
What are the 2 main components of a fat molecule?
1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
How is dehydration synthesis related to triglyceride formation?
The process of linking a fatty acid chain to a glycerol is called dehydration synthesis and 1 water molecule is formed and released
What's a saturated fat like on a: a) structural level, b) physical property level, c) healthy level
a) Structural level – No double bonds between carbons; "full" of H's
b) Physical property level – Solid at room temp
c) Healthy level – Generally unhealthy
What's an unsaturated fat like on a: a) structural level, b) physical property level, c) healthy level
a) Structural level – Double bonds between 1 or more carbons; not "full" of H's
b) Physical property level – Liquid at room temp
c) Healthy level – Generally healthy
What replaces 1 of the 3 fatty acid chains on a triglyceride to form a phospholipid?
Phosphate group
Where are phospholipids commonly found?
Cell membranes
What is a trans fat?
–A very unhealthy unsaturated fat
–Thought to be linked to cancer and heart disease
–Where the hydrogens in the hydrocarbon of a fatty acid are on opposite sides of the carbon chain
Explain the difference between HDL and LDL
HDL – healthy cholesterol (high density)
LDL – unhealthy cholesterol (low density)
What 4 elements are found in protein?
C, H, O, N
Describe 3 functions of proteins
–Muscle, nerve, and skin cells
–Hormones
–Nutrients (food)
What are the structural sub–units of proteins?
Amino acids
How many different amino acids are there?
20
What 5 elements are found in nucleic acid?
C, H, O, N, P
What are the building blocks of nucleic acids?
Nucleotides
List the 3 parts of a nucleotide
–5 carbon "pentose" sugar
–phosphate group
–nitrogen base
What makes up the backbone of a nucleic acid?
Sugar phosphate
What type of bond forms between the base pairs of adjacent nucleic acids?
Hydrogen bonds
What are the complementary base pairs for DNA?
–Adenine / Thymine
–Cytosine / Guanine
Who were the first to describe DNA?
Watson and Crick
A strand of DNA is described structurally as a double helix, and resembles a twisted ladder. In the twisted ladder analogy, what do the rungs (steps) and rails represent?
Rungs = base pairs
Rails = sugar phosphate backbone
Describe how a strand of DNA replicates itself
–Portion of DNA unwinds and opens up (unzips)
–An RNA primer is added to the parent strand
–An enzyme DNA polymerase binds to one side of the open DNA (leading strand) and moves toward the fork, fitting in new complementary nucleotides (A/T, C/G)
–On the second side of the open DNA (lagging strand), the RNA primer is again followed by DNA polymerase, which again binds to the open DNA and moves away from the fork, fitting in new complementary nucleotides. However, in this direction, only smaller fragments called "Okazaki fragments" are formed
–The RNA primers are replaced with DNA nucleotides
–The Okazaki fragments are stitched together by the enzyme DNA ligase
What does DNA stand for?
Deoxyribonucleic acid
What does RNA stand for?
Ribonucleic acid
In what ways to DNA and RNA differ?
–RNA has ribose as sugar, while DNA has deoxyribose
–RNA is single stranded, while DNA is double stranded
–RNA has uracil as a base, while DNA has thymine
Upon analysis, a double stranded section of DNA was comprised of 15% T. What is the % of A, G, C, and U?
–15% A
–35% G
–35% C
–0% U
A single strand of DNA is bonded to a complementary strand of mRNA. Upon analysis, the section was comprised of 10% C and 15% T. What is the % of A, G, and U?
–40% A
–10% G
–25% U
What is recombinant DNA and how is it formed?
–DNA that is made artificially by splicing 1 or more segments of DNA from 2 organisms
–The restriction enzyme (DNA restrictase) cuts the DNA and the DNA ligase stitches the two new segments together
List 5 uses of recombinant DNA for human therapy
–Insulin for diabetics
–Human growth hormones
–Better cheese
–Herbicide resistant plants
–High protein wheat
Define DNA typing
DNA typing is the analysis of one's DNA
How does DNA typing work?
–DNA in question is collected and isolated
–Special restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA into fragments of varying lengths
–These DNA fragments are placed into a Gel Electrophoresis plate, which separates the DNA into visually noticeable bands
–The separation of bands is achieved by passing an electrical current through the gel, which "drags" the negatively charged fragments across the gel
–The shortest fragments move the furthest, and so on
–Later photos of the plates are analyzed for band similarities
Why does DNA typing work?
Everybody's DNA is unique and can be used to identify them (like fingerprint analysis)
Provide two examples of where DNA typing is commonly used
–Evidence in criminal cases like rapes and murders–Paternity cases
–Determining whether an immigrant is actually a relative of already established residents
What is protein synthesis?
The process of making proteins
Where in the cell does protein synthesis occur?
It occurs in 2 stages:
–Stage 1 (transcription) occurs in the nucleus
–Stage 2 (translation) occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes
What part of the cell controls the proteins being synthesized?
The base sequence of the DNA
Give a detailed explanation of transcription
Stage 1 of protein synthesis; the process wherein a molecule of mRNA (messenger RNA) is made using a template strand of DNA
–Step 1: Initiation – A section of DNA (called a gene) opens up and a promoted sequence allows an enzyme RNA Polymerase II to attach to 1/2 the parent DNA
–Step 2: Elongation – Pre–mRNA forms using open DNA as template. RNA Polymerase II assembles the RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA template strand
–Step 3: Termination – When RNA Polymerase II reaches a terminator sequence of base pairs along the DNA template, transcription halts. Before it leaves the nucleus, the pre–mRNA is processed by (1) having its ends caped to protect it, and (2) having introns (non–coding sections) removed while leaving exons (coding sections) in place
Give a detailed explanation of translation
Stage 2 of protein synthesis; the process of creating a polypeptide (protein) using the genetic info present in the mRNA molecule
–Step 1: Initiation – When the mRNA attaches itself to both the ribosome and the tRNA at the "AUG" initiator sequence
–Step 2: Elongation – Every 3 nucleotides of mRNA called a "codon" codes for a particular amino acid. Transfer RNA (tRNA) carrying an amino acid, binds its "anticodon" to the complementary mRNA codon. A peptide bond forms between adjacent amino acids and the "empty" tRNA is released to find another amino acid. This continues as the mRNA slides along the ribosome
–Step 3: Termination – Translation is terminated when a "stop codon" is reached in the mRNA strand. The completed polypeptide (now called a protein) is released
What do mRNA and tRNA stand for?
mRNA – messenger RNA
tRNA – transfer RNA
What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?
It carries the code from the DNA to the ribosomes
What is the role of tRNA in protein synthesis?
To shuttle the amino acids into position for assembly
What is a codon and anti–codon?
–Codon – unit of 3 mRNA nucleotide bases
–Anti–codon – unit of 3 tRNA nucleotide bases
What is a mutation?
A change in the sequence of the base pairs of DNA
During which of the 4 cell cycle stages do most mutations occur and why?
–S (synthesis)
–The DNA is being unzipped and rebuilt during DNA replication
List the 3 types of mutations
–Single base substitutions
–Insertions and deletions
–Translocations
What are the 3 types of single base substitutions?
–Missense
–Nonsense
–Silent
Describe a missense mutation
Alters a codon to produce a different protein
Describe a nonsense mutation
Alters a codon to one of the STOP codons, resulting in a shortened protein
Describe a silent mutation
The altered codon happens to code for the same amino acid as the original, therefor no change in the protein is produced
Describe an insertion mutation
Extra base pairs are added to the DNA of a gene
Describe a deletion mutation
Extra base pairs are deleted from the DNA of a gene
Explain why insertions or deletions of 1 base is more harmful than insertions or deletions of 3 bases
An insertion or deletion of 1 would result in a frameshift
What is cancer?
Uncontrolled proliferation of cells
Explain the link between mutations and cancer
If a mutation happens by chance to occur in a section of DNA that codes for a protein that controls the cell cycle, the mutation could cause the cell to get stuck in full blown uncontrolled cell division mode
What is the difference between a malign (malignant) and benign tumor?
Malign – cancerous growth (always dividing)
Benign – stops dividing (like a mole)
What does "metastasis" mean in reference to cancer and why does it make cancer so difficult to treat?
–When cancer cells move through blood or lymph and establish themselves in other locations in the body
–Difficult to tread because cancer has spread
What is the Ames test?
A test used to determine if a chemical is a mutagen or carcinogen
Explain potential energy
The energy something has, based on its position in the universe
In the food we eat, where is the energy found?
Within a few types of high–energy bonds that make up the carbs, lipids, and proteins we eat
What is the difference between exothermic
(exergonic) and endothermic (endergonic) reactions?
–Exothermic (exergonic) reactions release energy (high energy reactants converted to low energy products) Ex: burning wood or glucose
–Endothermic (endergonic) reactions require energy (low energy reactants converted to low energy products) Ex: electrolysis (splitting) of water, and making glucose
Is 2,500,000 actual "scientific calories" reasonable? How many "food calories" are actually consumed?
–Yes
–It is the same as 2,500 calories
What are the chemical equations for cellular respiration and photosynthesis?
Cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2––––> 6CO2 + 6 H2O = –686 kcal

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6 H2O ––––> C6H12O6+ 6O2 = +686 kcal
In what ways are photosynthesis and cellular respiration complementary or opposite processes?
Products of one are the reactants of the other
Explain the relationship between a catalyst and enzyme and role of each
–Catalysts are chemicals that control the speed of reactions without changing the products formed by the reaction


–Enzymes are special protein catalysts that control the rates of reactions that occur in living cells
Define substrate
The molecule the enzyme binds to and changes
Describe activation energy and explain how an enzyme operates
–The activation energy is the energy required to initiate a chemical reaction
–Enzymes bind temporarily to one of more of the reactants of the reaction they catalyze
–In doing so, they lower the amount of activation energy needed and thus speed up the reaction
Explain how pH and temperature affect enzyme action
–The activity of enzymes is strongly affected by changes in pH and temperature
–Each enzyme works best at a certain pH and temperature, its activity decreasing at values above and below that point
Explain how competitive inhibition affects reaction rates
–Competitive inhibitors have shapes very similar to that of the substrate
–They "compete" with the substrate for the activation sites of enzymes and thus "get in the way" of the reaction, slowing it down
Explain how feedback inhibition affects reaction rates
–When enzyme activity is regulated by a molecule that isn't its substrate, the regulator molecule binds to the enzyme at a different site than the one to which the substrate binds
–This alters the shape of the enzyme so that it no longer fits the substrate at the active site, and therefor inhibits the enzyme from doing its job
Explain how precursor activation affects reaction rates
–When enzyme activity is regulated by a molecule that isn't its substrate, the regulator molecule binds to the enzyme at a different site than the one to which the substrate binds
–This alters the shape of the enzyme to improve the fit between it and the substrate at the active site, and therefore activates the enzyme, increasing its rate of activity
What do ATP and ADP stand for?
ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate
ADP – Adenosine Diphosphate
What is the primary function of ATP in the cell?
It is the major energy currency of the cell, providing the energy for most of the energy–consuming activities of the cell.
Explain how energy is released from ATP
When the 3rd phosphate group of ATP is released by hydrolysis, a substantial amount of free energy is released (7.3 kcal)
What is the chemical equation for the hydrolysis of ATP?
ATP + H2O ––––> ADP + Pi
Is energy released or consumed when ATP is converted to ADP
7.3 kcal/mole is released
Explain phosphorylation
It is the addition of 1 or more phosphate groups to a molecule (usually ADT)


ADP + Pi + Energy ––––> ATP + H2O
Most chemical reactions in the cell are powered by ATP. Give 4 examples of such reactions.
–assembly of amino acids into proteins
–assembly of nucleotides into DNA and RNA
–assembly of fats
–assembly of polysaccharides
Give 4 examples of other cell functions that are powered by ATP
–active transport of molecules and ions
–nerve impulses
–maintenance of cell volumes by osmosis
–contraction of muscles
What are the 2 raw materials (reactants) of photosynthesis? Describe how the plants obtain each.
–Water comes in through the roots and is transported up to the leaves through specialized conductive tissue called xylem
–Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through tiny holes/pores (stomata) found mainly on the underside of the leaves
What are the 2 products of photosynthesis
–Oxygen is given off as a waste product
–Sugar is also produced; however, one might say that glyceraldehyde 3–phosphate (G3P) is the true product and sugars like glucose and fructose are later made by the glyceraldehyde 3–phosphate
Describe the structure and function of a stomate
–It is a small pore–like hole mainly found on the underside of leaves
–It can be opened and closed by the plant regulating the amount of CO2 that can diffuse in, and the amount of O2 that it can diffuse out
–Specialized cells called guard cells surround the stomate and control when it is opened
–When guard cells are full of water (turgid), the stomate is open
–When guard cells are fully dehydrated (placid), the stomate is closed
What colour is found toward the shorter wavelengths' end of the light spectrum?
Ultraviolet or violet light
What colour is found toward the longer wavelengths' end of the light spectrum?
Infared or red light
What is a pigment?
A pigment is any substance that absorbs light
Why is chlorophyll green?
–It absorbs all colour except green, which it reflects
–The green reflected light then strikes our eyes and we perceive the colour green
According to the action spectrum of photosynthesis, visible light of what wavelengths and colour is absorbed the least by plants?
Light around 525 nm or green light is not absorbed by plants
Based on your answers to the above question, and according to the action spectrum of photosynthesis, what colour light bulb would be the best to shine on a green plant?
White light has all the colours, but a violet/blue light would seem to be the best
What is the structural unit of photosynthesis?
Chloroplast, but more specifically the thylakoid
What are the 2 general stages of photosynthesis and where in the chloroplast does each take place?
–Light reaction, in the thylakoid
–Dark reaction, in the stroma
Summarize the "Light Dependent Process" (Light Reaction)
–Energy from light is absorbed by a chlorophyll complex at PSII and an electron is pumped down one site along the ETS
–To replace the missing electron, PSII steals an electron from water (water is the electron loser), splitting the water into H+ ions and O
–The oxygen pair up, forming O2, and are given off as waste
–The H+ ions (protons) are left to build up inside the thylakoid and help increase the proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane
–The electron from the water is passed along the ETS like a hot potato from one electron acceptor to the other
–Along its travels down the ETS, the "excited" electron is used to pump H+ across the membrane into the thylakoid, also helping increase the proton gradient
–When the electron reaches PSI, it is re–energized by another unit (photon) of light
–This time, the excited electron is used to reduce NADP+, turning it into NADPH (here one might say the electron hops into the electron taxi cab called NADPH)
–The proton gradient gives ATPase the energy to convert ADP into ATP (called photophosphoralation)
What is the end result of the "Light Dependent Process"?
NADPH and ATP are produced
Summarize the "Light Independent Process" (Carbon Fixation Cycle)
–The 2 products of the light reaction (ATP and NADPH) are now used to drive the carbon fixation cycle
–The ATP releases its energy and the NADPH drops off the electrons and protons (H+) it picked up from water in the light reaction
–The carbon fixation cycle starts as 3 CO2 molecules enter the stroma and are grabbed by the enzyme RuBisCo, and each is added to a 5–carbon chain
–Through a series of reactions and shuffling of atoms, 6 molecules of glyceraldehyde 3–phosphate (G3P) are produced
–One G3P is removed and the other 5 G3P are reshuffled and used to regenerate the cycle
What is the end result of the "Light Independent Process"?
–G3P, which is a 3–carbon chain that can be thought as half a sugar
–Therefore, two turns of the cycle are required to produce 1 sugar molecule
A balance of how many carbon atoms must be maintained in the Carbon Fixation Cycle in order for it to continue to cycle?
15
What is the entire structure called?
Thylakoid
Within what large organelle is this entire structure found?
Chloroplast
What happens at the PSII?
Light excited electrons, sending them down the ETS, leaving the PSII hungry for new electrons
What happens at the cytochrome complex?
As the electrons flow down the ETS, they pump protons into the thylakoid to help build the pressure gradient
What happens at the PSI?
Light again excites the electrons, but this time giving them the energy boost they require to make it to the end of the ETS
What is the final electron acceptor along the ETS (in other words, where do the electrons end up)?
NADP+, which becomes NADPH
What happens to the hydrogens released when H2O is split?
They help build the pressure gradient
What happens to the oxygen released when H2O is split?
They wait for another oxygen, pair up, and are released into the atmosphere
What happens to the protons that are building up inside the thylakoid?
They eventually build up so much pressure that they are released through the ATP synthase, converting ADP into ATP
What is ATP synthase?
An enzyme in the thylakoid membrane that uses the energy of the proton gradient to convert ADP into ATP
What 3 factors contribute to the proton (H+) gradient across the thylakoid membrane?
1. The splitting of H2O at PSII releases two protons (H+) into the thylakoid
2. At the cytochrome complex, protons (H+) are pumped into the thylakoid
3. Any protons outside the thylakoid are picked up by the taxi cab (NADPH) and taken away to build G3P
What are the two energy–rich products of this light reaction?
ATP and NADPH
Where does glycolysis occur in the cell?
Cytoplasm
What goes into glycolysis and what comes out?
1 gluclose goes in
2 pyruvate come out
During glycolysis, what 2 high energy molecules are produced and how many of each?
Net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH are produced
If a chain of carbons that is 6 carbons long enters glycolysis, how many carbons in a chain of carbons will exit?
3
How many ATP and NADH are produced in glycolysis?
2 ATP
2 NADH
Two 3–carbon pyruvate molecules exit glycolysis. What occurs during transition to Kreb's cycle?
–Each of the two 3–carbon chains (called pyruvate) are shortened by one carbon, turning it into 2–carbon chains
–The carbons that are removed from each of the pyruvate are released as CO2
What is "gained" during the transition between glycolysis and Kreb's cycle? (How many?)
2 NADH (aka electron/proton taxi cabs) are produced
Where does cellular respiration occur in the cell?
Mitochondria
What is anaerobic respiration?
Breakdown of pyruvate WITHOUT oxygen
What is the final product of fermentation as carried out by yeast?
Ethanol
During period of intense activity, human muscles can become depleted of oxygen (localized anaerobic conditions). What is fermented?
Lactic acid (lactate)
What is aerobic respiration?
Breakdown of pyruvate in the presence of oxygen
What two major processes will be undertaken when oxygen is present for respiration?
–Kreb's Cycle
–ETS
How many CO2 are released every turn of the Kreb's Cycle?
2
Why is the Kreb's cycle also known as the Citric Acid Cycle?
In the first step, a 6–carbon molecule called citrate is formed
A balance of how many carbon atoms must be maintained in the Citric Acid Cycle in order for it to continue?
4
Which 3 energy–rich molecules are produced during Kreb's Cycle? (how many of each)
6 NADH
2 GTP
2 FADH2
At the Electron Transport System (ETS), the NADH and FADH2 that are produced in Kreb's Cycle, Transition, and Glycolysis are "cashed in", producing 36 ATP. Explain how this happens (the process is technically known as oxidative phosphorylation)
–The NADH and FADH2 act like taxi cabs and drop their electrons and protons off at the ETS (they are oxidized back into NAD+ and FAD+)


i) The dropped off electrons travel along the ETS, pumping protons (H+) into the intermembrane space, building the proton pressure (gradient)
–Eventually, the electrons are picked up from the end of the ETS by an oxygen atom and join with 2 H+ to form water


ii) The dropped off protons (H+) are pumped into the intermembrane space, building the proton pressure (gradient). This proton pressure (gradient) provides the energy to convert 36 ADP into ATP
Why do animals like humans require oxygen?
–Oxygen accepts the electrons from the electron transport system
–Without oxygen to grab the electrons from the last carrier in the system, the entire ETS backs up
–In turn, there is no way for the NADH to hand over its electrons, and it remains reduced instead of returning to the Citric Acid Cycle
–The Citric Acid Cycle will eventually stop operating and the entire ATP production in the mitochondrion will cease

What are the stages of meiosis?

Meiosis 1:


-Interphase 1


-Prophase 1


-Metaphase 1


-Anaphase 1


-Telophase/Cytokinesis 1




Meiosis 2:


-Prophase 2


-Metaphase 2


-Anaphase 2


-Telophase 2

What happens in Interphase 1?

Chromosomes duplicate

What happens in Prophase 1?

Homologous chromosomes pair and exchange segments

What happens in Metaphase 1?

Tetrads line up

What happens in Anaphase 1?

Pairs of homologous chromosomes split up

What happens in Telophase/Cytokinesis 1?

Two haploid cells form; chromosomes are still double

What happens in Meiosis 2?

The sister chromatids finally separate (anaphase 2), four haploid daughter cells result, containing single chromosomes

Haploid vs diploid

-Haploid - a single set of chromosomes


-Diploid - two sets of chromosomes

Genetics

The study of heredity

Heredity

Process by which genetic information is passed to the next generation

Gamete

-A sex cell (sperm or egg) possessing half the full set of chromosomes


-produced during meiosis

Genotype

Genetic constitution of an individual using symbols such as BB, Bb, and bb

Phenotype

The appearance of the individual with respect to a particular trait as produced by the genotype

Dominant

A form of a gene that suppresses expression of the other in the heterozygous condition

Recessive

-A form of a gene that is hidden when occurring in heterozygous condition


-Is expressed only when the determining gene is in the homozygous condition

Homozygous

Having the identical two alleles (form of a gene) on homologous chromosomes (BB/bb)

Heterozygous

Having different alleles on homologous chromosomes (Bb)

P1

Parent generation

F1

First offspring generations (filial)

Mendel bred garden peas and studied the heredity of what following traits?

-seed and pod shape


-plant height and bud location


-seed, pod, and petal colour

What were early breeding results?

-Purebred tall X purebred short = only tall offspring


-Tall x tall = tall and short by 3:1 ratio

List 4 conclusions of genetics

-Genes come in pairs - Each genetic characteristic is controlled by a pair of genes


-Law of Dominance - Whenever contrasting genes are found, one will be shown and the other hidden


-Law of segregation - Genes are carried in pairs and separate during meiosis to be distributed into different sex cells


-Law of Random (Independent) Assortment - Separation of genes during meiosis occurs randomly

Monohybrid cross

Cross that will produce offspring having contrasting genes for one characteristic

Multiple alleles

When 3 or more pairs of genes at the same location on a chromosome are controlling a characteristic

Non-dominance/incomplete dominance

When one trait does not completely dominate the other, resulting in a blending of the traits

Co-dominance

When both traits are expressed (ex: blood types)

Autosomal chromosomes

Pairs of chromosomes that are identical in males and females

Sex chromosomes

Chromosomes that are not identical in males and females (X and Y)