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331 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
terrestrial organisms that include forms that have returned to water
plants
organism that makes organic molecules by photosynthesis
photoautotroph
Where do photosynthetic organisms receive water and mineral nutrients?
Mainly in the soil
aerial leaf-bearing organs used by plants to absorb sunlight and CO2
shoots
subterranean organs used by plants to absorb water and minerals
roots
symbiotic associations of fungi and roots, in which the fungi absorb water and essential minerals from the soil, provide these materials to the plant, and are nourished by sugars produced by the plant
Mycorrhizae
key adaptations that made it possible for plants to live on land
Mycorrhizae
The main photosynthetic organ of most plants which utilize stomata, vacular tissue, and the cuticle.
Leaves
microscopic pores found on a leaf's surface for the exchange of CO2 and O2 with the atmosphere
Stomata
A system of tube-shaped cells that branch throughout the plant for the transport of vital materials
vascular tissue
a waxy layer coating leaves and other aerial plants of most plants for the retention of water
cuticle
protective structure which have a jacket of protective cells surrounding a moist chamber where gametes can develop without dehydrating to produce their gametes
Gametangia
In plants, where does the zygote develop into the embryo?
within the female parent
When did plants evolve from algae?
500 million years ago
modern-day lineage of green algae and may resemble one of these early plant ancestors
Charophytes
are bryophytes, sprawl as low mats over acres of land, and need water to reproduce because their sperm swim to reach eggs within the female gametangium.
Mosses
Mosses display what two key terrestrial adaptations?
A cuticle, & retention of developing embryos within the mother's plant's gametangium
What are the two forms of mosses?
gametophyte & sporophyte
type of moss which produces gametes
gametophyte
type of sporophyte which produces spores
Sporophyte
How are mosses and bryophytes unique from other plants?
the gametophyte is the larger more obvious plant
by far the most diverse seedless vascular plants, represented by more than 12,000 known species; have flagella
Ferns
How do the sperm of ferns fertilize eggs
they must swim through a film of water to fertilize eggs
formed from the remains of long-dead organisms and
include coal, oil, and natural gas.
Fossil Fuels
This act releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change
The burning of fossil fuels
can complete their life cycles on dry land and withstand long, harsh winters; formed and evolved near the end of the carboniferous period
Gymnosperms
cone-bearing plants
conifers
cover much of northern Eurasia and North America, are usually evergreens, and include the tallest, largest, and oldest organisms on Earth
Conifers
plants that retain their leaves throughout the year
Evergreens
What 3 terrestrial adaptations made survival for conifers and gymnosperms possible?
further reduction of the gametophyte,

pollen, and

seeds
actually the much-reduced male gametophyte and houses cells that will develop into sperm
Pollen grain
consists of a plant embryo and food supply packaged together within a protective coat
Seed
develop from ovules, and can remain dormant for long periods before they germinate
Seeds
structures located on the scales of female cones in conifers
Ovules
when the embryo emerges through the seed coat as a seedling
germination
dominate the modern landscape, are represented by about 250,000 species, and supply nearly all of our food and much of our fiber for textiles
Angiosperms
tubes in angiosperms that made water transport more efficient, leading to success
Vascular Tissue
help to attract pollinators that transfer pollen from the sperm-bearing organs of one flower to the egg-bearing organs of another
Flowers
a short stem bearing modified leaves that are attached in concentric circles at its base
Flowers
Form the outer layer of a flower and are usually green
Sepals
colorful parts of the flower that help to attract pollinators
Petals
male reproductive structures located below the petals.
Stamens
Sac at the top of each stamen where pollen grains develop
Anther
the female reproductive structure at the center of the flower
Carpels
What two parts does the Carpel consist of?
The ovary & The stigma
structure of the carpel where a protective chamber containing one or more ovules in which the eggs develop
The Ovary
Sticky tip of the carpel which traps pollen
Stigma
What is the difference between the seeds of angiosperms and gymnosperms?
angiosperms enclose the seed within an ovary while

gymnosperms have naked seeds
a ripened ovary, helps protect the seed, increases seed dispersal, and is a major food source for animals
Fruit
supply most of our lumber and paper
Gymnosperms
provide nearly all our food and supply fiber, medications, perfumes, and decoration
Angiosperms
recycle vital chemical elements back to the environment in forms other organisms can assimilate and form mycorrhizae
Fungi
fungus-root associations that help plants absorb mineral and water from the soil.
Mycorrhizae
What kind of cells do Fungi have?
Euks
Fungi are more closely related to animals than plants. From a common ancestor, when did fungi arise?
1.5 billion years ago
What type of organisms are Fungi?
Chemoheterotrophs
How do fungi acquire nutrients?
Absorption
fungi that digests food outside its body by secreting powerful digestive enzymes to break down the food and absorbs the simpler food compounds
Fungus
thread-like filaments that construct the bodies of most fungi
Hyphae
minute threads of cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane and cell walls mainly composed of chitin
Hyphae
An interwoven network formed as a result of Hyphae branching repeatedly; The feeding structure of the fungus
mycelium
arise from an underground mycelium and mainly function in reproduction
Mushrooms
How do Fungi reproduce?
by releasing haploid spores that are produced either sexually or asexually
the principal decomposers of ecosystems and keep ecosystems stocked with the inorganic nutrients necessary for plant growth
Fungi and bacteria
What would happen without decomposers?
carbon, nitrogen, and other elements would accumulate in nonliving organic matter
How did animal life begin?
in Precambrian seas with the evolution of multicellular creatures that ate other organisms
What 3 things qualify an organism as an animal?
Eukaryotic cells, Multicellular, Heterotrophic
organisms that obtain nutrients by ingestion and are able to digest their food within their bodies
Heterotrophs
Most animals have what kind of cells?
muscle cells and nerve cells that control the muscles
diploid organisms that reproduce sexually and proceed through a series of typically similar developmental stages
Animals
What did animals evolve from according to scientists?
a colonial flagellated protist
How old are the oldest animal fossils?
550–575 million years old
When did animal diversity appear to accelerate?
530 million years ago during the Cambrian period

aka Cambrian expolosion
What two things may have ignited the Cambrian explosion?
more complex predator-prey relationships

Increase in atmospheric oxygen
General features of body structure and genetic data biologists categorize animals by
Body Plan
What major branch point separates sponges from all other animals?
sponges lack true tissues
What was the second major evolutionary split of animals based on?
Body symmetry
refers to animals that are identical all around a central axis
Radial symmetry
exists where there is only one way to split the animal into equal halves
Bilateral symmetry
a fluid-filled space separating the digestive tract from the outer body wall; a way in which animals vary
Body Cavity
If the body cavity is not completely lined by tissue derived from mesoderm, it is called a ____________.
pseudocoelom
coelom that is completely lined by tissue derived from mesoderm
A true coelom
animals without backbones and represent 95% of the animal kingdom
Invertebrates
stationary animals that lack true tissues, and probably evolved very early from colonial protists
Sponges
cells that draw water through the walls of the sponge where food is collected
Choanocyte Cells
organisms characterized by the presence of body tissues, radial symmetry, and tentacles with stinging cells
Cnidarians
a central digestive compartment with only one opening; the basic body plan of a cnidarian
Gastrovascular cavity
The body plan, gastrovascular cavity, has what two variations?
the stationary polyp and

the floating medusa.
carnivores that use tentacles, armed with cnidocytes
Cnidarians
stinging cells, for defense and to capture prey
cnidocytes
soft-bodied animals usually protected by a hard shell
Molluscs
a fold of tissue that secretes the shell if present in a mollusc
Mantle
The body of molluscs consists of what 3 main parts?
a muscular foot for movement,

a visceral mass containing most organs,

a mantle
What are the 3 major groups of molluscs?
Gastropods, Flatworms, Annelids
organisms protected by a single, spiraled shell
Snails
Type of molluscs which include snails, slugs, and sea slugs
Gastropods
the simplest bilateral animals; include forms that are parasites or free-living in marine, freshwater, or damp habitats
Flatworms
Type of molluscs that have body segmentation
Annelids
a subdivision of the body along its length into a series of repeated parts. ex: earthworms
Body segmentation
What are the three main groups of annelids?
leeches, earthworms, polychaetes
Type of annelids which eat their way through soil
Earthworms
marine worms with segmental appendages for movement and gas exchange; group of annelids
Poly chaetes
Type of annelid which is a typically free-living carnivore but with some blood-sucking forms
Leeches
What two things make up the bodies of annelids?
A complete digestive tract

A coelom
Animals that are cylindrical in shape, tapered at both ends, and the most numerous and widespread of all animals; aka nematodes
Roundworms
important decomposers and dangerous parasites in plants, humans, and other animals
Roundworms
segmented animals with specialized segments and appendages for an efficient division of labor among body regions
Arthropods
What are the four main groups of arthropods?
Arachnids, Crustaceans, Millipedes and Centipedes, and insects
External skeleton that provides protection and points of attachment for muscles; generally found in Arthropods
Exoskeleton
Arthropods that usually live on land, usually have four pairs of walking legs and a specialized pair of feeding appendages, and include spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites
Arachnids
Arthropods that are nearly all aquatic, have multiple pairs of specialized appendages, and include crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, and barnacles
Crustaceans
Arthropods that eat decaying plant matter and have two pairs of short legs per body segment
Millipedes
Arthropods with terrestrial carnivores with poison claws and have one pair of short legs per body segment
Centipedes
The bodies of insects consist of what 3 parts?
head, thorax, and abdomen
What is one key to great success of insects?
Flight
organisms that lack body segments, typically show radial symmetry as adults but bilateral symmetry as larvae, have an endoskeleton, and have a water vascular system that facilitates movement and gas exchange
Echinoderms
Organisms that have unique endoskeletons composed of a cranium (skull) and a backbone made of a series of bones called vertebrae
Vertebrates
What 4 key features are shared by Chordates?
a dorsal, hollow nerve cord, a notochord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail
Chordate characteristic which is apparent in the backbone of vertebrates and segmental muscles of all chordates
Body Segmentation
Chordates consist of what 3 groups of invertebrates?
Lancelets, Tunicates, Hagfishes
bladelike animals without a cranium; a group of invertebrates
Lancelets
Group of invertebrates which lack a cranium; aka seq squirts
Tunicates
Group of invertebrates that are eel-like and have a cranium
Hagfishes
Aside from 3 groups, all other chordates are what kind of organisms?
Vertebrates
When did the first vertebrates evolve?
during the early Cambrian period, about 540 million years ago
What is one major characteristic of the first vertebrates?
They lacked jaws
What are the two major groups of living fishes?
Cartilaginous fishes

Bony Fishes
Type of living fishes with a flexible skeleton made of cartilage; ex: sharks and rays
Cartilaginous fishes
Type of living fishes with a skeleton reinforced by hard calcium salts; includes ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned fishes
Bony fish
organisms that exhibit a mixture of aquatic and terrestrial adaptations, usually need water to reproduce, and typically undergo metamorphosis from an aquatic larva to a terrestrial adult
Amphibians
What organisms were the first vertebrates to colonize land?
Amphibians
The first amphibians descended from fishes. What characteristics did these fishes have?
lungs, fins with muscles, and

skeletal supports strong enough to enable some movement on land
fluid-filled eggs that have waterproof shells, and enclose the developing embryo
amniotic eggs
Organisms that produce amniotic eggs; includes Reptiles and mammals
Amniotes
Reptiles include what 6 different animals?
Snakes, Lizards, Turtles, Crocodiles, Alligators, and Birds
What two adaptations do reptiles possess that allow them to live on land?
amniotic eggs and scaled waterproof skin
Animals that obtain body heat from the environment; sometimes referred to as cold-blooded
Ectotherms
a lineage of small, two-legged dinosaurs that birds evolved from during the Mesozoic Era
Theropods
What 3 adaptations make birds lighter in flight?
honeycombed bones,

only one ovary, and

a beak instead of teeth
animals that maintain a warmer and steady body temperature.
Endotherms
wings powered by breast muscles anchored to a kneel-like breastbone; bird wings adapted for flight
Airfoils
animals that arose about 200 million years ago and were probably small, nocturnal insect-eaters
Mammals
What two aquatic animals are considered mammals?
Dolphins and Whales
What are two characteristics unique to mammals?
Hair

milk-producing mammary glands to nourish the young
What are the three groups of mammals?
Monotremes, Marsupials, Eutherians
Egg-laying mammals
Monotremes
Pouched mammals with a placenta; Kangaroos
Marsupials
Placental mammals
Eutherians
When and from who did primates evolve from?
insect-eating mammals during the late Cretaceous period, about 65 million years ago
What 4 characteristics distinguish primates from other animals?
limber shoulder joints,

eyes in front of the face,

excellent eye-hand coordination, and

extensive parental care
Humans share a common african ancestry with what animal?
Chimpanzees
How are humans different from chimpanzees?
Humans are bipedal and have much larger brains
What was the first adaptation to evolve in humans first?
Bipedalism
had a larger brain

walked upright, and

made stone tools that enhanced hunting, gathering, and scavenging on the African savanna.

aka "handy man"
Homo habilis
the first species to extend humanity’s range from Africa to other continents
Homo erectus
When did global dispersal occur?
1.8 million years ago
regionally diverse descendents in Europe and Asia and known as neanderthals. was taller and had a larger brain than H. Habilis
Homo Neanderthalensis
Shared a common ancestor with humans about 500,000 years ago and may have interbred with homo sapiens
Neanderthals
When and where were the oldest known fossils of our own species (homo sapiens) discovered?
in Ethiopia and

date from 160,000 to 200,000 years ago
the social transmission of accumulated knowledge, customs, beliefs, and art over generations
Culture
How is culture primarily transmitted?
Language
the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments
Ecology
all of the organisms in the area and

the living component of the environment
Biotic Factors
the environment’s nonliving component and

include chemical and physical factors, such as temperature, light, water, minerals, and air
Abiotic Factors
Ecology can be divided into what 4 levels?
Community
Organismal
Population
Ecosystem
an individual living thing
Organism
ecology concerned with evolutionary adaptations that enable individual organisms to meet the challenges posed by their abiotic environments
Organismal ecology
ecology that addresses populations, groups of individuals of the same species living in an area and concentrates mainly on factors that affect population density and growth
Population ecology
ecology concerned with communities, all the organisms that inhabit an area and focuses on how interactions between species affect a community’s structure and organization
Community ecology
ecology concerned with ecosystems, all the abiotic factors and the community of species in a certain area. Also focuses on energy flow and the cycling of chemicals among abiotic and biotic factors
Ecosystem Ecology
the global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems, or all of life and where it lives
Biosphere
What do patterns in distribution of life reflect?
differences in an environment's abiotic factors
What process powers most ecosystems?
Photosynthesis
occur a mile or more below the ocean’s surface and are ecosystems powered by chemoautotrophic bacteria
Hydrothermal Vents
bacteria that derive energy from the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide
chemoautotrophic bacteria
Name one major factor in metalbolism
temperature
Temperatures above _ _ ºC destroy the enzymes of most organisms
45ºC
Molecule essential to all life
Water
What is one major problem aquatic organisms face in their surroundings?
Whether or not their own solute concentration does not match that of their surroundings
What affects the distribution and abundance of plants?
- availability of inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous
- pH of the soil
- structure of the soil
In many aquatic ecosystems, the growth of algae and photosynthetic bacteria is often limited by what factors?
the levels of dissolved oxygen, salinity, currents, and tides
Terrestrial ecosystems are specifically affected by what factors?
Wind, storms, or fire.
Evolutionary adaptation via natural selection results from the interactions between what two things?
Organisms and their environments
What is an example of a behavioral response?
Birds adjusting to cold by

migrating to warmer regions
What is an example of an anatomical response?
A bird growing heavier feathers to combat cold conditions
What is an example of a physiological response?
Birds fluffing up their feathers to trap more heat to endure the cold
A gradual, reversible, and physiological adjustment to an environmental change
Acclimation
Why is it that birds and mammals can tolerate the greatest temperature extremes?
They are endotherms
Why is it that reptiles can only tolerate a limited range of temperatures?
They are ectothermic organisms
a major terrestrial or aquatic life zone, characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial biomes or the physical environment in aquatic biomes
Biomes
occupy roughly 75% of Earth’s surface and are determined by their salinity and other physical factors
Aquatic Biomes
biomes that have a salt concentration of less than 1% and include lakes, streams, rivers, and wetlands
Freshwater biomes
biomes that typically have a salt concentration around 3% and include oceans, intertidal zones, coral reefs, and estuaries
Marine biomes
biomes that cover less than 1% of Earth, contain a mere 0.01% of its water, harbor about 6% of all described species, and are used for drinking water, crop irrigation, sanitation, and industry
Freshwater Biomes
Freshwater biomes fall into what two broad groups?
Flowing water

Standing water
What bodies of water are included in standing water biomes?
Lakes and ponds
What bodies of water are included in flowing water biomes?
Rivers and Streams
How are communities of plants, algae, and animals distributed in lakes and ponds?
By depth of water and distance from shore
named because light is available for photosynthesis, includes the shallow water near shore and the upper layer of water away from shore
Photic Zone
is deeper than the photic zone and has light levels too low to support photosynthesi
aphotic zone
is at the bottom of all aquatic biomes, made up of sand and organic and inorganic sediments, and occupied by communities of organisms that are collectively called benthos
The benthic realm
What two elements regulate the amount of phytoplankton growth in a lake or pond?
Nitrogen

Phosphorous
bodies of water flowing in one direction and generally support quite different communities of organisms than lakes and ponds
Rivers and Streams
Describe the water near the source of a stream
clear
cold
swift
low in nutrients
Describe water located downstream
murky
warm
slow
high in nutrients

(complete opposite of upstream)
a transitional biome between an aquatic ecosystem and a terrestrial one; support the growth of aquatic plants and are rich in species diversity
Wetlands
diverse biome, ranging from vivid coral reefs to perpetually dark realms in the deepest regions
Marine Biome
the seafloor in freshwater biomes and marine biomes is known as the _____ _____
Benthic Realm
includes all of the open water of the oceans
Pelagic Realm
zone which includes zooplankton (free-floating animals, including many microscopic ones), fishes, and marine mammals
pelagic photic zone
occurs in the photic zone of warm tropical waters, in scattered locations around the globe
The Coral Reef Biome
Dimly lit Ocean region between 200 and 1,000 m deep and is dominated by a fascinating variety of small fish and crustaceans
Twilight Zone
zone where the ocean meets land, the shore is pounded by waves during high tide, and the bottom is exposed to the sun and drying winds during low tide
Intertidal zone
a transition area between a river and the ocean, have a saltiness ranging from nearly that of fresh water to that of the ocean, and are among the most productive areas on Earth
Estuaries
Explain why rain forests are concentrated in the tropics
Heated by the direct rays of the sun, air at the equator rises, then cools, forming clouds, and drops rain
Areas that generally have milder climates than the tropics or the polar regions. They occur in latitudes between the tropics and the Arctic Circle in the north and the tropics and the Antarctic Circle in the south
Temperate Zones
Name two major ways in which mountains affect climate
1.) Air temp. drops as elevation increases causing several biomes as you go up a mtn.

2.) mountains can block cool, moist air from a coast and cause very different climates on both sides of a mountain range
How are terrestrial ecosystems grouped into biomes?
By their vegetation
a visual representation of the differences in precipitation and temperature ranges that characterize terrestrial biomes
A Climograph
Biomes that occur in equatorial areas, where the temperature is warm, and days are 11–12 hours long year-round
Tropical Forests
Biomes that are dominated by grasses and scattered trees, are warm year-round, and experience rainfall of 30–50 cm (roughly 12–20 inches per year) with dramatic seasonal variation
Savannas
are the driest of all biomes, are characterized by low and unpredictable rainfall of less than 30 cm (about 12 inches) a year, and may be very hot or very cold
Deserts
has a climate that results from cool ocean currents circulating offshore and producing mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers
Chaparral
Biomes that are mostly treeless, have 25–75 cm (10–30 inches) of rain per year, experience frequent droughts and fires, and are characterized by grazers including bison and pronghorn in North America
Temperate Grasslands
occurs throughout midlatitudes where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large trees, ranging from 75 to 150 cm (30 to 60 inches), and includes dense stands of deciduous trees in the Northern Hemisphere
Temperate Broadleaf Forest
trees that drop their leaves before winter, when temperatures are too low for effective photosynthesis and water lost by evaporation is not easily replaced from frozen soil
Deciduous trees
Forests dominated by cone-bearing evergreen trees and include the northern coniferous forest, or taiga, the largest terrestrial biome on Earth
Coniferous Forests
Forests found along coastal North America from Alaska to Oregon and are also coniferous forests
Temperate Rain forests
Biome that covers expansive areas of the Arctic between the taiga and polar ice and is characterized by permafrost (permanently frozen subsoil), bitterly cold temperatures, and high winds
Tundra
What are two human activities that affect the global water cycle?
Destruction of forests

Pumping large amounts of groundwater to the surface for irrigation
the goal of developing, managing, and conserving Earth’s resources in ways that meet the needs of people today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
Sustainability
What is causing global climate patterns to change?
Rising concentrations in the atmosphere of CO2 and certain other gases
gases that include CO2, water vapor, and methane, are transparent to solar radiation, absorb or reflect heat, and contribute to increases in global temperatures
Greenhouse gases
the number of individuals of a species per unit of area or volume
pop density
the distribution of individuals in different age-groups. provides insight into

the history of a population’s survival,

reproductive success, and/or

how the population relates to environmental factors
age structure
track survivorship (the chance of an individual in a given population surviving to various ages) and

help to determine the most vulnerable stages of the life cycle
Life tables
plot the number of individuals still alive at each age in the maximum life span and

are classified based upon the rate of mortality over the life span of an organism
survivorship curves
the set of traits that affect the organism’s schedule of

reproduction and survival
Life history of an organism
Name 4 key life history traits
age at first reproduction,

frequency of reproduction,

number of offspring, and

amount of parental care given.
Organisms with an opportunistic life history
take immediate advantage of favorable conditions and

typically exhibit what type of curve?
type III survivorship curve
Organisms with an equilibrial life history

develop and reach sexual maturity slowly,

produce few, well-cared-for offspring,

are typically larger-bodied and longer-lived, and

typically exhibit what type of curve?
Type I survivorship curve
describes the expansion of a population in an ideal and unlimited environment
Exponential population growth
environmental factors that hold population growth in check and

restrict the number of individuals that can occupy a habitat
limiting factors
the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain
carrying capacity
growth that occurs when the growth rate decreases as the population size approaches carrying capacity
Logistic population growth
What two factors affect the carrying capacity for a population?
the species and available resources in the habitat
Where do organisms exhibiting equilibrial life history patters reside?
in environments where the population size is at or near carrying capacity.
competition between individuals of the same species for the same limited resources
intraspecific competition
a population-limiting factor whose effects intensify as the population increases in density
density-dependent factor
What happens as population size increases?
competition becomes more intense and

birth rates decline.
population-limiting factors whose intensity is unrelated to population density and

include abiotic factors such as

fires,

floods, and

storms.
Density-Independent Factors
ecology used to increase populations of organisms we wish to harvest,

decrease populations of pests, and

save populations of organisms threatened with extinction
Population ecology
species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range and

a threatened species as one that is likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future.
Endangered Species
What is a major factor in pop decline?
habitat destruction or habitat modification
a non-native species that has spread far beyond the original point of introduction and

causes environmental or economic damage by colonizing and dominating suitable habitats
An invasive species
invasive species typically inhibit what kind of life pattern?
Opportunistic life history pattern
the intentional release of a natural enemy to attack a pest population and

used to manage an invasive species
biological control
create their own highly managed ecosystems that

have genetically similar individuals (a monoculture),

are planted in close proximity to each other, and

function as a “banquet” for

plant-eating animals,

pathogenic bacteria, and

viruses
Agricultural operations
result in pesticide-resistant pests,

kill the pest and their natural predators, and

kill pollinators
Pesticides
tolerates a low level of pests instead of total eradication,

produces a sustainable control of agricultural pests, and

uses a combination of

biological methods,

chemical methods, and

cultural methods
Integrated pest management
Name 3 methods of Integrated pest management
using pest-resistant varieties of crops,

using mixed-species plantings, and

rotating crops to deprive the pest of a dependable food source
What two major historical events caused human life to improve and expand?
Industrial and Agricultural revolutions
What is the difference in births and deaths between developed and non-developed countries?
In the most developed nations, the overall growth rates are near zero.

In the developing world,

death rates have dropped and

high birth rates persist
helps predict a pop.'s future growth
Age structure
the continuation of population growth as girls in the prereproductive age group reach their reproductive years
population momentum
An expanding pop. needs what 3 things?
schools,

employment, and

infrastructure.
an estimate of the amount of land required to provide the raw materials an individual or a nation consumes, including

food,

fuel,

water,

housing, and

waste disposal
Ecological Footprint
What is The ecological footprint of the United States?
9 hectares per person

(twice what the US land and resources can support)
includes
– genetic diversity,
– species diversity, and
– ecosystem diversity
biodiversity
the raw material that makes microevolution and adaptation to the environment possible
Genetic Diversity
functions performed by an ecosystem that directly or indirectly benefit people, including
– air and water purification,
– climate regulation, and
– erosion control
ecosystem services
Name the 4 main factors responsible for loss of biodiversity
– habitat destruction and fragmentation,
– invasive species,
– overexploitation, and
– pollution
What 4 human activities threaten biodiversity through habitat destruction?
– agriculture,
– urban development,
– forestry, and
– mining
a contributing factor in declining populations of hundreds of species.
– Acid precipitation is a threat to ecosystems.
– The global water cycle can transport pollutants from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems hundreds of miles away
Pollution
includes
– other individuals in its own population and
– populations of other species living in the same area
Biotic Environment
An assemblage of species living close enough together for potential interaction
Community
interactions between species
Interspecific interactions
an organism’s total use of the
– abiotic and
– biotic resources in its environment
ecological niche
states that if two species have an ecological niche that is too similar, the two species cannot coexist in the same place
The competitive exclusion principle
both species benefit from an interaction
mutualism (+/+)
refers to an interaction in which one species (the predator) kills and eats another (the prey)
Predation (+/-)
– camouflage and
– a way for prey to hide from predators
Cryptic Coloration
– a brightly colored pattern and
– a way to warn predators that an animal has an effective chemical defense
warning coloration
a form of defense in which one species looks like another species
Mimicry
the consumption of plant parts or algae by an animal
Herbivory
Name 3 plant defenses against Herbivores
spines, thorns, toxins
animals that live in or on a host from which they obtain nutrients
Parasites
disease-causing
– bacteria,
– viruses,
– fungi, and
– protists
Pathogens
the feeding relationships among the various species in a community; determines the passage of energy and nutrients from plants and other photosynthetic organisms to herbivores and then to predators
Trophic Structure
The sequence of food transfer between trophic levels
Food Chain
The trophic level that supports all other trophic levels consists of autotrophs
Producers
All organisms in trophic levels above the producers are heterotrophs
Consumers
Herbivores which eat plants
Primary consumers
eat primary consumers
Secondary Consumers
eat secondary consumers
Tertiary consumers
eat tertiary consumers
Quaternary Consumers
the dead material left by all trophic levels
detritus
Consumers such as crows and vultures, feast on carcasses
Scavengers
Consumers such as earthworms and millipedes, primarily consume decaying organic material
Detrivores
mainly prokaryotes and fungi, secrete enzymes that digest molecules in organic material and convert organic materials into inorganic forms
Decomposers
When Toxins become concentrated as they pass through a food chain
biological magnification
The feeding relationships in a community are usually woven into elaborate ____ _____
Food Webs
eat
– producers and
– consumers.
Omnivores
the number of different species in the community
Species Richness
the proportional representation of a species in a community
relative abundance
a species whose impact on its community is much larger than its total mass or abundance indicates
Keystone Species
episodes that damage biological communities, at least temporarily, by
– destroying organisms and
– altering the availability of resources such as mineral nutrients and water.
Examples include
– storms,
– fires,
– floods,
– droughts, and
– human activities
Disturbances
a gradual replacement by other species
Ecological succession
begins
– in a virtually lifeless area with no soil,
– in places such as
– the rubble left by a retreating glacier or
– lava flows
Primary Succession
occurs where a disturbance has
– destroyed an existing community but
– left the soil intact
Secondary Succession
includes
– the community of species in a given area and
– all the abiotic factors, such as
– energy,
– soil characteristics, and
– water
Ecosystem
the passage of energy through the components of the ecosystem
Energy Flow
the use and reuse of chemical elements such as carbon and nitrogen within the ecosystem
Chemical Recycling
What happens to most of the sunlight that reaches the Earth?
Most of this energy is absorbed, scattered, or reflected by the atmosphere or by Earth’s surface.
The amount, or mass, of living organic material in an ecosystem
Biomass
The rate at which an ecosystem’s producers convert solar energy to the chemical energy stored in biomass
Primary Production
illustrates the cumulative loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain
Pyramid of Production
involves
– biotic components and
– abiotic components from an abiotic reservoir where a chemical accumulates or is stockpiled outside of living organisms
Biogeochemical cycles
Name the 3 most important biogeochemical cycles
– carbon,
– phosphorus, and
– nitrogen
Where is Carbon's reservoir?
In the atmosphere
Cycling Carbon requires what two processes?
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Does phosphorous have an atmospheric component?
No
– an ingredient of proteins and nucleic acids and
– essential to the structure and functioning of all organisms and has two abiotic reservoirs:
– the atmosphere and
– the soil
Nitrogen
converts gaseous N2 to nitrogen compounds that plants can assimilate
Nitrogen Fixation
the foundation for
– finding solutions to these problems and
– reversing the negative consequences of ecosystem alteration
Ecological Research
relatively small areas that have
– a large number of endangered and threatened species and
– an exceptional concentration of endemic species, those that are found nowhere else
Biodiversity hot spots
– regional assemblages of interacting ecosystems,
– such as an area with forest, adjacent fields, wetlands, streams, and streamside habitats.
Landscapes
the application of ecological principles to the study of land-use patterns
Landscape Ecology
prominent features of landscapes, whether natural or altered by people, and
– have their own sets of physical conditions, such as
– soil type and
– surface features
Edges Between Ecosystems
is a narrow strip or series of small clumps of suitable habitat that connects otherwise isolated patches.
– can promote dispersal and help sustain populations and
– are especially important to species that migrate between different habitats seasonally
Movement Corridor
uses living organisms to detoxify polluted ecosystems
Bioremediation