Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
200 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
cells become specialized in structure and function
|
Cellular Differentiation
|
|
|
What happens to certain genes in the process of gene regulation?
|
certain genes are turned on (to start making proteins) or off (to stop making proteins)
|
|
|
When a gene is turned on and transcribed into RNA and information flows from genes to proteins and genotype to phenotype; info flowing from DNA to Proteins
|
Gene expression
|
|
|
The great difference between cells in an organism is a result of this.
|
Selective Expression of Genes
|
|
|
a cluster of genes with related functions and the control sequences that turn the genes on or off
|
operon
|
|
|
a cluster of genes with related functions and the control sequences that turn the genes on or off
|
Lac Operon
|
|
|
What three things are used by a lac operon?
|
-promoter
-operator -repressor |
|
|
a control sequence where the transcription enzyme attaches and initiates transcription
|
promoter
|
|
|
a DNA segment that acts as a switch that is turned on or off
|
operator
|
|
|
binds to the operator and physically blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase and transcription.
|
repressor
|
|
|
What should you think of when you see an RNA Polymerase?
|
operator
|
|
|
what does a repressor gene make?
|
repressor proteins
|
|
|
what does lactose do to the repressor protein(s)?
|
changes the shape
|
|
|
What do cells use DNA packing for?
|
long-term inactivation of genes
|
|
|
process that takes place early in embryonic development, occurs in female mammals, and is when one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is inactivated at random
|
X Chromosome Inactivation
|
|
|
In X Chromosome Inactivation, what happens to the X chromosomes in the descendants?
|
the descendants of each cell will have the same X chromosome turned off
|
|
|
what will happen If a female is heterozygous for a gene on the X chromosome?
|
about half her cells will express one allele and the others will express the alternate allele
|
|
|
The most important stage for regulating gene expression
|
Transcription
|
|
|
what happens to regulatory proteins in pro and euk cells?
|
they bind to DNA and turn the transcription of genes on and off
|
|
|
proteins in eukaryotes that bind to enhancers during Transcription
|
transcription factors
|
|
|
DNA sequences that transcription factors bind to during transcription in eukaryotes
|
Enhancers
|
|
|
The most important stage for regulating gene expression
|
cross cell boundaries
|
|
|
secreted chemicals produced and used by cells that affect gene regulation in another cell
|
Hormones
|
|
|
master control genes that regulate groups of other genes that determine what body parts will develop in which locations
|
Homeotic Genes
|
|
|
all of these types of cells contain a complete genome and have the potential to express all of an organism’s genes
|
Differentiated cells
|
|
|
What is unique about differentiated plant cells?
|
they can develop into a whole new organism
|
|
|
what can be done with somatic cells of a single plant?
|
cross cell boundaries
|
|
|
demonstrates that cell differentiation in plants is reversible and does not cause irreversible changes in the DNA
|
Plant Cloning
|
|
|
the regrowth of lost body parts
|
Regeneration
|
|
|
When cells in the stump of a limb reverse their differentiated state, divide, and then differentiate again to give rise to a new leg
|
Regeneration
|
|
|
process that involves replacing the nucleus of an egg cell with the nucleus from a differentiated cell from an adult body and allowing the egg to develop into an adult
|
Nuclear Transplantation
|
|
|
by replacing the nucleus of an egg cell with the nucleus of an adult somatic cell; results in the birth of a new animal
|
Reproductive Cloning
|
|
|
process used not to produce a viable organism but to produce embryonic stem cells.
|
Therapeutic Cloning
|
|
|
derived from blastocysts and can give rise to all the specialized cells in the body
|
ES Cells (Embryonic Stem)
|
|
|
cells in adult tissues and generate replacements for some of the body’s cells
|
Adult Stem Cells
|
|
|
How are ES Cells and Adult Stem Cells different?
|
AS Cells are partway along to differentiation and usually give rise to only a few related types of specialized cells
|
|
|
genes that cause cancer and found in viruses
|
Oncogenes
|
|
|
process that involves replacing the nucleus of an egg cell with the nucleus from a differentiated cell from an adult body and allowing the egg to develop into an adult
|
cloning
|
|
|
Caner type which will afflict 150,000 Americans this year
|
Colon Cancer
|
|
|
cancer that is usually not associated with inherited mutations
|
Breast Cancer
|
|
|
name 3 carcinogens (cancer-causing agents)
|
Tobacco, Alcohol, UV light from the sun
|
|
|
the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products and has been used for thousands of years to selectively breed livestock for desired traits
|
Biotechnology
|
|
|
constructed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from two different sources to form a single DNA molecule.
|
Adult Stem Cells
|
|
|
the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes
|
genetic engineering
|
|
|
human insulin that was produced by genetically modified bacteria and is used today by more than 4 million people with diabetes; world's 1st genetically engineered pharmaceutical product sold in 1982
|
Humulin
|
|
|
harmless variants or derivatives of a pathogen used to prevent infectious diseases
|
vaccines
|
|
|
medically valuable molecule/hormone which stimulates the production of red blood cells
|
erythropoietin (EPO)
|
|
|
organisms that have acquired one or more genes by artificial means.
|
genetically modified (GM) organisms
|
|
|
organism that contains a gene from another organism, typically of another species
|
transgenic organism
|
|
|
Can transgenic animals be sold as food like transgenic plants are?
|
NO
|
|
|
the workhorses of modern biotechnology
|
bacteria
|
|
|
biologists use these small, circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the larger bacterial chromosome to work with genes in a lab
|
bacterial plasmids
|
|
|
DNA carriers that move genes from one cell to another
|
vectors
|
|
|
the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes
|
Plasmids
|
|
|
the production of multiple identical copies of a gene-carrying piece of DNA
|
gene cloning
|
|
|
can help biologists produce large quantities of a desired protein
|
Recombinant DNA techniques
|
|
|
produced by combining two ingredients:
a bacterial plasmid and a gene |
Recombinant DNA
|
|
|
To combine the ingredients, what must happen to DNA to become recombinant DNA?
|
a piece of DNA must be spliced into a plasmid
|
|
|
proteins which cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites)
|
genetically modified (GM) organisms
|
|
|
pieces of DNA with “sticky ends” important for joining DNA from different sources.
|
restriction fragments
|
|
|
process accomplished by using restriction enzymes and producing restriction fragments
|
DNA splicing
|
|
|
connects the DNA pieces into continuous strands by forming bonds between adjacent nucleotides
|
DNA ligase
|
|
|
can be used to determine if two samples of genetic material are from a particular individual and has rapidly revolutionized the field of forensics, the scientific analysis of evidence from crime scenes
|
DNA profiling
|
|
|
How do scientists produce a DNA profile?
|
scientists compare sequences in the genome that vary in people
|
|
|
used to test the guilt of suspected criminals, identify tissue samples of victims, resolve paternity cases, identify contraband animal products, and trace the evolutionary history of organisms
|
DNA profiling
|
|
|
a technique to copy quickly and precisely a specific segment of DNA and can generate enough DNA, from even minute amounts of blood or other tissue, to allow DNA profiling\
|
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
|
|
|
compares the lengths of DNA fragments and uses gel electrophoresis
|
STR analysis
|
|
|
a method for sorting macromolecules—usually proteins or nucleic acids—primarily by their electrical charge and size
|
Gel Electrophoresis
|
|
|
analysis, in which DNA molecules are exposed to a restriction enzyme, producing fragments that are compared and made visible by gel electrophoresis
|
RFLP analysis
|
|
|
produced by combining two ingredients:
a bacterial plasmid and a gene |
Comparative Anatomy
|
|
|
The first targets of genomics research
|
Bacteria
|
|
|
massive scientific endeavor to determine the nucleotide sequence of all the DNA in the human genome and identify the location and sequence of every gene
|
Human Genome Project
|
|
|
method, in which the entire genome is chopped into fragments using restriction enzymes, all the fragments are cloned and sequenced, and computers running specialized mapping software reassemble the millions of overlapping short sequences into a single continuous sequence for every chromosome
|
Whole-Genome Shotgun Method
|
|
|
What 3 observations did Charles Darwin make from his studies?
|
Life shows rich diversity.
There are similarities in life that allow classification of organisms into groups within broader groups. Organisms display many ways in which they are suited for their environments |
|
|
process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than individuals with other characteristics
|
DNA splicing
|
|
|
What happens to a population as a result of natural selection?
|
a population changes over generations to adapt to their environment
|
|
|
a population’s increase in the frequency of traits suited to the environment as a result of natural selection
|
Evolutionary Adaptation
|
|
|
a change in the genetic composition of a population over time or, the entire biological history
|
Evolution
|
|
|
imprints or remains of organisms that lived in the past; often found in sedimentary rocks
|
Fossils
|
|
|
Scientist that proposed that an organism's acquired traits were inherited by its parents using or not using its body parts
|
Lamarck
|
|
|
Scientist that suggested that Earth is very old and was sculpted by gradual geological processes that continue today; was a strong influence to Darwin
|
Lyell
|
|
|
What two points did Darwin make in 'The Origin of Species'?
|
Organisms today descended from ancestral species.
Natural selection is the mechanism for descent with modification |
|
|
What are the 5 lines of evidence in support of evolution?
|
-the fossil record
-biogeography -comparative anatomy -comparative embryology -molecular biology |
|
|
ordered sequence of fossils as they appear in rock layers,
reveals the appearance of organisms in a historical sequence, and fits with the molecular and cellular evidence that prokaryotes are the ancestors of all life |
Fossil Record
|
|
|
the study of the geographic distribution of species
|
Biogeography
|
|
|
the comparison of body structure between different species and attests that evolution is a remodeling process in which ancestral structures become modified as they take on new functions
|
Genomics
|
|
|
the similarity in structures due to common ancestry and
illustrated by the remodeling of the forelimbs of mammals for different functions |
Homology
|
|
|
remnants of features that served important functions in an organism’s ancestors
|
Vestigial Structures
|
|
|
Comparing early stages of development in different animal species to reveal additional homologous relationships
|
Comparative Embryology
|
|
|
What two things do biologists look at to compare evolutionary relationships among organisms?
|
proteins and genes
|
|
|
Darwin based his theory of natural selection on what two key observations?
|
Life shows rich diversity.
There are similarities in life that allow classification of organisms into groups within broader groups. Organisms display many ways in which they are suited for their environments |
|
|
What does overproduction of offspring lead to?
|
competition
|
|
|
What can be inferred from Darwin's two observations on NS in regards to reproduction?
|
Unequal reproductive success
|
|
|
The smallest biological unit that can evolve
|
populations
|
|
|
The total collection of alleles in a population at any one time
|
gene pool
|
|
|
When the relative frequency of alleles changes over a number of generations
|
evolution
|
|
|
What two processes result in genetic variation
|
Mutations and Sexual Recombination
|
|
|
changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
|
mutations
|
|
|
the shuffling of alleles during meiosis
|
sexual recombination
|
|
|
formula used to calculate the frequencies of genotypes in a gene pool from the frequencies of alleles
|
The Hardy-Weinberg Formula
|
|
|
the population’s gene pool is constant over time
|
genetic equilibrium
or Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium |
|
|
What are the 5 lines of evidence in support of evolution?
|
microevolution
|
|
|
What are the 3 main causes of evolutionary change?
|
genetic drift, gene flow, natural selection
|
|
|
of the 3 main causes for evolutionary change, which one is the only process that promotes adaptation?
|
Natural Selection
|
|
|
a change in the gene pool of a small population due to chance; luck
|
Genetic Drift
|
|
|
an example of genetic drift and results from a drastic reduction in population size
|
The Bottleneck Effect
|
|
|
when a few individuals colonize an isolated habitat; explains the relatively high frequency of certain inherited disorders in some small human populations
|
Homology
|
|
|
genetic exchange with another population, may result in the gain or loss of alleles, and tends to reduce genetic differences between populations
|
Gene Flow
|
|
|
the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals
|
Relative fitness
|
|
|
selection that shifts the overall makeup of a population by selecting in favor of one extreme phenotype.
|
Directional selection
|
|
|
selection that can lead to a balance between two or more contrasting phenotypic forms in a population
|
Disruptive Selection
|
|
|
selection that favors intermediate phenotypes, occurs in relatively stable environments, and is the most common.
|
Stabilizing selection
|
|
|
a form of natural selection in which individuals with certain traits are more likely to obtain mates
|
Sexual selection
|
|
|
a distinction in appearance between males and females not directly associated with reproduction or survival
|
Sexual dimorphism
|
|
|
the process in which one species splits into two or more species
|
Speciation
|
|
|
A group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce fertile offspring
|
species
|
|
|
prevent mating or fertilization between species; include temporal isolation, habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, and gametic isolation
|
Prezygotic barriers
|
|
|
When the relative frequency of alleles changes over a number of generations
|
interspecies mating occurs
and hybrid zygotes form |
|
|
Postzygotic barriers include what 3 things?
|
reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, and hybrid breakdown
|
|
|
When species form by geographic isolation
|
allopatric speciation
|
|
|
When species form without geographic isolation
|
sympatric speciation
|
|
|
Give an example of allopatric isolation
|
When an earthquake separates an area of land, isolating populations
|
|
|
speciation that occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area
|
The Hardy-Weinberg Formula
|
|
|
Give an example of Sympatric Speciation
|
An accident during cell division that results in an extra set of chromosomes in plants
|
|
|
How do polypoid species arise?
|
hybridization of two parent species
|
|
|
What are the two paces of speciation?
|
Gradual Pattern, Punctuated Equilibrium Pattern
|
|
|
pattern in which big changes (speciations) occur by the steady accumulation of many small changes
|
Gradual Pattern
|
|
|
pattern, in which there are long periods of little apparent change (equilibria) interrupted (punctuated) by relatively brief periods of rapid change
|
Punctuated Equilibria Pattern
|
|
|
evolutionary developmental biology; is the study of the evolution of developmental processes in multicellular organisms
|
Evo-Devo
|
|
|
the most common method for dating fossils,is based on the decay of radioactive isotopes, and helped establish the geologic time scal
|
Radiometric dating
|
|
|
How was Pangaea formed?
|
plate movements
|
|
|
explains why Mesozoic reptiles in Ghana (West Africa) and Brazil look so similar and how marsupials were free to evolve in isolation in Australia
|
Plate Tectonics
|
|
|
occurred at about the time the merging continents formed Pangaea (250 million years ago) and claimed about 96% of marine species
|
Permian Mass Extinction
|
|
|
the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals
|
Relative Fitness
|
|
|
classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships
|
Systematics
|
|
|
identification, naming, and classification of species
|
Taxonomy
|
|
|
proposed the current taxonomic system based upon a two-part name for each species and hierarchical classification of species into broader groups of organisms
|
Linnaeus
|
|
|
a two part Latinized name assigned to each species
|
binomial
|
|
|
What does a Binomial consist of?
|
Sexual selection
|
|
|
The goal of systematics
|
to have classification reflect evolutionary relationships
|
|
|
reflects variations of a common ancestors and are one of the best sources of info used to develop phylogenetic trees and classify organisms according to their evolutionary history
|
Homologous structures
|
|
|
involves superficially similar structures from different evolutionary branches that result from natural selection shaping analogous adaptations
|
Convergent evolution
|
|
|
Similarity due to convergence
|
Analogy
|
|
|
similarities used to develop phylogenetic trees and classify organisms according to their evolutionary history
|
Homologous Similarities
|
|
|
consists of an ancestral species and all its evolutionary descendants and forms a distinct branch in the tree of life
|
A Clade
|
|
|
organisms are grouped by common ancestry
|
Cladistics
|
|
|
When was earth formed?
|
4.6 billion years ago
|
|
|
When did prokaryotes appear?
|
3.5 billion years ago
|
|
|
When did eukaryotes first appear?
|
2.1 billion years ago
|
|
|
Give an example of allopatric isolation
|
Cambrian Explosion
|
|
|
When did plants and fungi first appear?
|
500 million years ago
|
|
|
all life today arises by the reproduction of preexisting life
|
biogenesis
|
|
|
until 1800's, common belief that life regularly arises from non-living matter
|
spontaneous generation
|
|
|
1st stage of the four-stage hypothesis of life
|
abiotic synthesis of organic monomers
|
|
|
2nd stage of the four-stage hypothesis of life
|
Abiotic Synthesis of Polymers
|
|
|
3rd stage of the four-stage hypothesis of life
|
Formation of pre-cells
|
|
|
have a selectively permeable surface, can grow by absorbing molecules from their surroundings, and swell or shrink when placed in solutions of different salt concentrations
|
pre-cells
|
|
|
4th stage of the hypothesis of life
|
Origin of self-replicating molecules
|
|
|
what did the first genes look like?
|
short strands of RNA
|
|
|
are found wherever there is life,
have a collective biomass that is at least ten times that of all eukaryotes, thrive in habitats too cold, too hot, too salty, too acidic, or too alkaline for any eukaryote, cause about half of all human diseases, and are more commonly benign or beneficial |
prokaryotes
|
|
|
name the 3 most common shapes of prokaryotes
|
spherical (cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli), spiral/curved
|
|
|
all prokaryotes are ___________
|
unicellular
|
|
|
reproduction of prokaryotes
by dividing in half by binary fission and at very high rates if conditions are favorable |
binary fission
|
|
|
thick-coated, protective cells
produced when the prokaryote is exposed to unfavorable conditions |
endospores
|
|
|
organisms that obtain energy from light
|
phototrophs
|
|
|
classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships
|
chemotrophs
|
|
|
Where do autotrophs obtain carbon from?
|
CO2
|
|
|
Where do heterotrophs obtain carbon from?
|
organic nutrients such as glucose
|
|
|
photoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs are dominant in what kind of organisms
|
multicellular organisms
|
|
|
What are the two main branches of prokaryotic evolution?
|
bacteria and archaea
|
|
|
archaea that thrive in salty environments
|
Sexual selection
|
|
|
Archaea that inhabit in very hot water
|
Thermophiles
|
|
|
Archaea that inhabit the bottoms of lakes and swamps and aid digestion of cattle and deer
|
Methanogens
|
|
|
Bacteria and other organisms that cause disease
|
pathogens
|
|
|
produced by most pathogenic bacteria
|
poisons
|
|
|
proteins secreted into their environment by bacterial cells
|
Exotoxins
|
|
|
chemical components of the outer membrane of certain bacteria
|
Endotoxins
|
|
|
What are the best defenses against bacterial diseases?
|
sanitation, antibiotics, education
|
|
|
disease caused by bacteria carried by ticks and treated with antibiotics, if detected early
|
Lyme disease
|
|
|
bacterium considered to have dangerous potential as a weapon
|
Clostridium botulinum
|
|
|
exotoxin that blocks transmission of nerve signals that cause muscle contractions; deadliest poison on earth
|
botulinum
|
|
|
When did prokaryotes appear?
|
decomposition
|
|
|
the use of organisms to remove pollutants from water, air, and soil
|
Bioremediation
|
|
|
name two examples of bacteria as a positive decomposer
|
cleaning up petroleum and oil spills, decomposing sewage waste
|
|
|
eukaryotes that are not fungi, animals, or plants
mostly unicellular, and ancestral to all other eukaryotes |
Protists
|
|
|
How did eukaryotic cells evolve?
|
the infolding of the plasma membrane of a prokaryotic cell to form the endomembrane system
and endosymbiosis |
|
|
general association between organisms of two or more species
|
biogenesis
|
|
|
refers to one species living inside another host species; process by which eukaryotes gained mitochondria and choloroplasts
|
Endosymbiosis
|
|
|
organisms that produce their food by photysynthesis; algae
|
autotrophs
|
|
|
protists that live primarily by ingesting food
|
protozoans
|
|
|
protozoans with flagella; free-living and some are parasites
|
flagellates
|
|
|
protists that are characterized by great flexibility in their body shape and the absence of permanent organelles for locomotion
|
Amoebas
|
|
|
temporary extensions of the cell; most species move and feed by this act
|
pseudopodia
|
|
|
shells used by other protozoans with pseudopodia
|
forams
|
|
|
protozoans that are named for thier use of cilia; include heterotrophs and mixotrophs
|
Ciliates
|
|
|
hair-like structures used to move and sweep food into the mouths of ciliates
|
cilia
|
|
|
photosynthetic protists whose chloroplasts support food chains in freshwater and marine ecosystems
|
algae
|
|
|
name the 3 most common shapes of prokaryotes
|
plankton
|
|
|
large, multicellular marine algae, grow on or near rocky shores, are only similar to plants because of convergent evolution, are most closely related to unicellular algae, and are often edible
|
seaweeds
|
|
|
normal genes with the potential to become oncogenes, found in many animals, and often genes that code for growth factors, proteins that stimulate cell division
|
proto-oncogenes
|
