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120 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Which junctions are similar to plasmodestmata?
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gap junctions
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Primary cell wall is made out of?
Secondary cell wall is made out of? |
cellulose, ligin
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Normal blood glucose levels fall between what?
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70 and 150 mg
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What cell is insulin produced in?
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beta cells of pancreas
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When is insulin secretion high?
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when blood glucose is high, increase insulin is secreted
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What causes insulin secretion to decrease?
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when blood glucose drops
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Where does insulin get secreted to?
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blood
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What does various cells, such as muscle cells do after stimulated by insulin?
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Take up glucose and use it for immediate energy
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What can liver cells do after being stimulated by insulin?
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Increase their uptake of glucose and convert it to glycogen
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What is dysfunctional in diabetes type I?
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no insulin secretion, auto immune disease, a meal with alot of sugar stays in the blood stream
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What is dysfunctional in diabetes type II?
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makes insulin but cells dont respond to the insulin
diet helps to eat less sugars |
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Name for High blood sugar
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hyperglycemia
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Symptoms of high blood sugar
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thirst, excessive urination, weight loss, tiredness
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Name of low blood sugar
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hypoglycermia
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Over time, individuals with diabetes are at risk for what?
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CV disease
retina disease nerve damage kidney damage less wound healing which leads to infection |
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What is an antibiotic? Why does it kill bacteria and not you?
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An antibiotic targets something that a human eukaryotic cell doesnt have such as a cell wall. It selectively kills bacteria. This can lead to other effects on other bacteria in you besides the disease such as diaharea.
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What are some cell structures an antibiotic could target?
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cell wall
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How to treat fungals
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Fungals are more similar to a human cell because they are eukaryotic cells. So to treat, you apply locally something with high toxicity so you will destroy the fungal and maybe a few skin cells which can be replenished. Taking something orally you could affect major organs!
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Which organelle is responsible for detoxification of drugs and alcohol?
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Smooth er
(in liver cells) |
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What is the effect on the liver of drinking too much? (cellular level)
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The effect is an increase of SER, which means more enzymes for detox
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If they stop drinking can the changes at the cellular level be reversed?
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yes
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The amount of sedative that would knock out a normal person would have what effect on an alcoholic?
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Not much or decreased effect because the enzymes break down alcohol also were quite efficient break down sedative
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Why shouldn't you mix drugs and alcohol?
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The body cant break down them both. So the effect is much stronger. They both compete for the limited number of thse SER detox enzymes. The effects are felt much stronger and the toxic combination can affect the liver.
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First law of dynamics
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Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
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Potential energy
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Capacity to cause change because of where an object is located or how its parts are arranged
ex: ATP it can be coverted into kinetic energy |
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In each conversion a bit of energy is converted to what?
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thermal energy (heat)
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Entropy
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measure of how much energy in the universe is disperesed.
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Second law of thermodynamics
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Entropy tends to increase. If it does decrease in one place, it increases in another.
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Endergonic
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reactions that will not happen without a net energy input.
Takes more energy to break the bonds than is released by the formation of the products (energy in) |
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Exergonic
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Energy released when products form is greater than the energy to break the bonds of reactants.
(energy out) |
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ATP accepts energy released by?
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exergonic reactions
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ATP also delivers energy to?
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endergonic reactions
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Phosphorylation
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when ATP donates a phosphate group to another molecule, it transfers energy that primes the receipant molecule to react
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When ATP loses a phosphate it becomes?
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ADP
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ADP gains a phosphate by an endergonic reaction it becomes?
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ATP
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What cycle drives most metabolic reactions?
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ATP-ADP cycle
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What are not consumed or altered when used in a reaction?
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enzymes
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What do enzymes do? (2)
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They recognize, bind and alter only SPECIFIC reactants. They also lower the activation energy needed
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Substrates
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Specific reactants that an enzyme recognizes and acts upon.
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Which are usually larger the enzyme or substrate?
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enzyme
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Active sites
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enzymes polypeptide chains are folded into this chemically stable pocket or site where substrates bind and reactions proceed.
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The reason enzymes only act on specific substrates?
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Its complimentary in shape, size, polarity and charge for the substrate. All the substrate usually fits or part of it fits the active site.
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The energy it takes to realign reactive chem groups, destabilize electric charges and break bonds?
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activation energy
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When the substances bonds reach the breaking point and the reaction can run spontaneously to product?
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transition energy
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4 mechanisms of enzyme mediated reactions
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1) helping the substrate get together
2) orinating positions that favor a reaction 3) inducing a fit between the enzyme and its substrate 4) shutting off water molecules |
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Allosteric site
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where activate or inhibitor regulatory molecule can bind, it is the region on the enzyme beside the active site
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Feedback inhibition
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an activity causes a condition to change, then the change itself stops the activity
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Effects on reaction rates (3)
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temperature, ph solutions, salinity
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Salinity
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too much or too little salt can interfere with the hydrogen bonds that hold an ezyme in its 3d shape
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Exception to the rule that enzymes work best at ph 6-8?
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pepsin: which is found and activated in your gastic fluid which is very acidic (ph 2). If it were to leak out of the stomach, it would digest the proteins in your tissues instead of your food.
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Antioxidant
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help neutralize other strong oxidizers such as free radicals (atoms or molecules with at least one unpaired electron)
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Free radicals
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are atoms or moleculs with at least one unpaired electron. They are leftovers of metabolic reactions that attack the structure of biological molecules.
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Coenzymes
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are organic cofactors that do get modified during a reaction but they are regenerated elsewhere
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Cofactor
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molecule or metal ion that assits enzymes. May carry electrons, hydrogen, or functional groups to the other reaction sites.
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Energy carrier
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mainly ATP
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Intermediate
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any substance that forms in a reaction or pathway between the reactants and the end products.
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Biosynthetic pathways
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Build organic compounds from small molecules, and they require a net energy input.
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Degradative (catabolic) pathways
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which end with a net release of usable energy- break down organic compounds to smaller products
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Autotrophs
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They are producers who directly get carbon in their environment
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What is the main biosynthetic pathway in the biosphere?
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photosynthesis
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Heterotrophs
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are consumers who get carbon from organic compounds that autrophs have already assembled
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What is the main degradtive pathway in the biosphere?
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Aerobic respiration
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Direction of Metabolic reactions?
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can go from reactants to products
products to reactants all tends to try to reach equilibrium |
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Redox reactions
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a molecule accepts electrons (reduction) from another molecule (oxidation)
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Where do redox reactions occur?
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electron transfer chain
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Which molecules usually accept electrons in redox reactions?
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coenzymes
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OIL RIG
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oxidation is loss
reduction is gained |
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Concentration Gradient
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is a difference in the number per unit volume of molecules or a substance between two adjacent regions
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Which direction do molecules tend to move in their concentration gradient?
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They tend to move down their concentration gradient- from high to low
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Diffusion
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the net movement of like molecules or ions down a concentration gradient
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Diffusion rates depend on?
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size, steepness of its concentration gradient, temperature, electric or pressure gradient
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How does size affect diffusion rates?
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Smaller molecules diffuse faster than larger ones
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The selective permeable membrane allows what to cross freely?
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nonpolar molecules and gases
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What are transported through transport proteins?
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large molecules like glucose
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Passive transport
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Are channels through which a specific solute follows its concentration gradient across a membrane
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Passive transport is also called?
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facilitated diffusion
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Active transport
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Help specific solutes move across the membrane but they have to do this with energy inputs. It goes against the concentration gradient.
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Endocytosis
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Endocytosis is vesicle forms around particles where a patch of plasma membrane sinks inward and seals back on itself as it comes into the cell.
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Exocytosis
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vesicle that forms in the cytoplasm fuses with the plasma membrane, so contents are dumped outside the cell
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What is the role of ATP in active transport?
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once the solute is in the channel the ATP changes the shape of the transport protein which make it release the solute to the other side
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Osmosis
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water molecules diffusing across a slectively permeable membrane in response to concentration gradient
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Tonicity
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is the relative concentrations of solutes in 2 fluids that are seperated by a semi permeable membrane
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hypotonic
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the lower concentration of solutes
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hypertonic
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higher solute concentration
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What happens when fluid in the cell is hypertonic (high)?
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The cell volume will increase because water will flow in.
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What happens with the fluid in the cell is hypotonic?
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The cell volume will decrease because water will flow out.
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Hydrostatic pressure(turgor)
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pressure that a volume of fluid exerts against a cell wall membrane tube and structure that holds it
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Osmotic pressure
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the amount of hydrostatic pressure can stop water from diffusing into cytoplasmic fluid or other hypertonic solutions.
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Water moves from what to what?
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hypotonic to hypertonic solutions
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Receptor mediated endocytosis
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Molecules of a hormone, vitamin, mineral or other bind to receptors on the plasma membrane and shallow pit sinks and membrane closes and makes vesicle
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Phagocytosis endocytosis
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"cell eating" There are slo receptors present and they bind to a target. They cause microfilaments to assemble a mesh under teh plasma membrane. They contract forcing cytoplasm to amke a pseudopod. Pseudopod engulfs the target and merges as a vesicle. It meets with lysomes that will break down the content with enzymes.
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Which endocytosis meets with lysosomes?
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phagocytosis endocytosis
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Bulk phase
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not as selective, vesicle forms around a small volume of extracellular fluid regardless of what substances are inside
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Membrane is lost due to?
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endocytosis
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Membrane is replaced through?
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exocytosis
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Lufts syndrome
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first to be linked with a defective mitochondria. The cells were working hard and had too many mitochondira but they were not producing enough ATP
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Friedreich's ataxia
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Fraxtaxin is mutated so the protein does not work properly. Iron accumlates in mitochondira. Cells die faster than can be repaired.
Loss of coordination, weak muscles and serious heart problems |
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Fermentation pathways
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Produce ATP under anaerobic conditions. Certain eukaryotes use this pathway
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Aerobic respiration
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Uses oxygen, some prokaryotes use this. All eukaryotes use this.
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Which two pathways begin with the same reaction in the cytoplasm?
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Fermentation pathways and Aerobic respiration
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Pyruvate
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an organic compound with 3 carbon backbone
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Where does the fermentaion pathway end and where does aerobic respiration end?
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fermentation pathway: cytoplasm
aerobic respiration: mitochondria |
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Which pathway ends with oxygen accepting electrons at the end?
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aerobic respiration
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Which one is more effcient, aerobic or anaerobic?
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aerobic
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What is the net yield of fermentation pathways?
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2 ATP
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What is the net yield of aerobic respiration?
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36 ATP
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Glycolysis
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is the spliting of 1 glucose to 2 pyruvates and small amounts of ATP are generated
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Krebs cycle
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degrades pyruvate to C02
ATP is produced and the coenzymes NAD+ and FAD accept H+ and electrons to be carried to the electron transfer chain |
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Electron transfer phosphorylation
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processes the H+ and electrons to generate high yields of ATP; the final electron accepter is oxygen
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How many ATP are required to donate a phosphate group to glucose which then splits to form 2 molecules of PGAL?
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2
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What are the end products of glycolysis?
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2 pyruvates, 2NADH, 2ATP(netgain)
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Where is the second stage of aerobic respiration located?
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mitochondria
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How does the pyruvate enter the mitochondrion?
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facilitated diffusion
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Acetyle CoA formation
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One pyruvate enters the mitochondria and one carbon is removed from CO2 and now two carbon fragement joins coenzyme A and forms acetyle CoA
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How is oxaloaretoate formed?
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Acetyle coA joins with a four carbon molecule
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How many carbons are there in this new molecule, oxaloaretoate?
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6 (citrate)
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substate level phosphorylation
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phosphate groups are directly transfered from intermediates to ADP and producing 1ATP
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The end products of krebs cycle?
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8 NADH, 2FADH2, 2ATP, 6CO2
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Where is the electron transfer phosphorylation located?
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innermembrane
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What contributes to the electron transfer chain?
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10 NADH + 2FADH2
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