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386 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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acalculia
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inability to calculate
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acetylcholine (Ach)
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neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, & memory; also involved in REM, sleep/wake cycle. Undersupply of production causes Alzheimer's.
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tactile agnosia
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From damage to Parietal Lobe; inability to recognize objects by touch
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agonist
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enhances effect
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agraphia
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inability to write
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alexia
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inability to read
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alpha waves
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seen when an individual is in a relaxed, unfocused, yet still awake state
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amino acids
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GABA, Glycine, & Glutamate
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amygdala
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a part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
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anhedonia
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Inability to experience pleasure, associated with some mood and schizophrenic disorders.
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anosagnosia
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From damage to Parietal Lobe; Failure to recognize the symptoms or deficits associated with one's own disorder.
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antagonist
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inhibits effect
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anterograde amnesia
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the inability to form NEW memories because of brain trauma
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aphasia
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Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing Speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing Understanding).
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apraxia
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From damage to Parietal Lobe; Total or partial loss of the ability to perform coordinated movements or manipulate objects in the absence of motor or sensory impairment.
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basal ganglia
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Structures located deep in the brain that play an important role in the initiation of movements, sensorimotor learning, and motoric expressions of emotional states. Includes the CAUDATE NUCLEUS, PUTAMEN, GLOBUS PALLIDUS, and SUBSTANTIA NIGRA. Cell death in the substantia nigra contributes to Parkinson's disease; also implicated in Tourette Syndrome, Autism, OCD.
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beta waves
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The type of brain waves present when a person is awake and alert; typically indicating mental activity.
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brain stem
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The part of the brain that controls functions including heart rate, breathing, and body temperature; includes MIDBRAIN, PONS, and MEDULLA OBLONGATA. Connects to spinal cord.
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CAT scan
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computerized axial tomography (structure)
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caudate nucleus
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Brain structure; part of the BASAL GANGLIA that controls motor behavior and is implicated in obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's, Huntington Disease, ADHD.
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cerebellum
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The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
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cerebral cortex
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Comprised of 2 hemispheres and 4 lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.
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Cholinergic
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synaptic transmission that is mediated by the release of acetylcholine
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chorea
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uncontrollable and irregular muscle movements
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cingulate gyrus
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satisfaction center of brain; eating & sex
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classical neurotransmitters
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acetylcholine (Ach), catecholamines, serotonin, amino acids
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conduction aphasia
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lesion in connections between Broca's and Wernicke's, difficulty repeating, articulation and comprehension intact, reading out loud poor, writing disturbed, comprehension good
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Cryptomnesia
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perceives information as being an original idea of their own
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delta waves
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largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep
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diffuse impairment
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loss of complex cognitive functions
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discrete impairment
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loss of foresight & concern, irresponsibility
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dopamine
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neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of it linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia
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enkephalins & endorphins
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endogenous opioids; regulate stress and pain
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GABA & glycine
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have calming effect; this neurotransmitter is a powerful inhibitory; when LOW - high anxiety, epileptic seizures
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Gate control theory
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The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; it proposes the nervous system can process only a certain amt of info at one time.
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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
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Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion
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Gerstmann's syndrome
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a set of four deficits believed to be associated with damage to left parietal lobe (acalculia, finger agnosia, agraphia, and left-right disorientation)
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glutamate
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major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; most common neurotransmitter; abnormal levels found in schizophrenia
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hemiparesis
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slight paralysis or weakness affecting one side of the body
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hippocampus
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part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories
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hydroncephalus
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excessive brain fluid
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hypnogogic hallucinations
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dreamlike auditory or visual experiences while dozing or falling asleep; most common in narcolepsy
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hypnopompic hallucinations
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Occur while waking from sleep ("Pompous upon awakening")
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hypothalamus
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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.
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Iatrogenically produced symptoms
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symptoms caused by medical or psychological treatment
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idiopathic
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Occurring without a known cause
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inferior colliculus
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part of the brain in charge of the response to auditory stimulus
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Kluver-Bucy syndrome
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A collection of symptoms, including tameness, extreme sexual behavior, and oral exploration, that results from damage to the temporal lobes, and the amygdala in particular.
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locus coeruleus
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located in reticular formation, involved in attention, arousal, sleep cycles; associated with depression and panic disorder
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lymbic system
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- places a role in emotion and memory; contains the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cyrus
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norepinephrine
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a neurotransmitter that activates the sympathetic response to stress, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure in support of rapid action; depression - low; manic - high
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paraplegia
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paralysis of both legs and the lower part of the body
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paresis
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muscle weakness or partial paralysis
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paresthesia
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abnormal skin sensations (as tingling or tickling or itching or burning) usually associated with peripheral nerve damage
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petit mal seizure
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milder form of seizure lasting only a few seconds and does not include convulsive movements; also known as ABSENCE seizures
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pituitary
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gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system
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pons & medulla
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"switchboard" regulating the flow of informatinon between the brain and the rest of the body. Controls facial expression, sleep, respiration, movement, cardiovascular, blood pressure, breathing, etc.
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Positron emission tomography (PET)
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used for demonstrating brain activity or functioning
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proprioception
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the ability to sense the position, location, orientation and movement of the body and its parts
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prosopagnosia
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inability to recognize or identify a known face or individual; can be caused from damage to the junction of the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes
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reticular activating system (RAS)
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filter for incoming sensory information; related to attention, arousal, awaking/sleeping cycle
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retrograde amnesia
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loss of memories that were stored before a traumatic event
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serotonin
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A neurotransmitter whose abnormal activity is linked to depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders.
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substantia nigra
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A structure in the Basal Ganglia, involved in movement; produces Dopamine so if injured can cause Parkinsons
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synesthesia
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a blending of sensory experience that causes some people to "see" sounds or "taste" colors, for example
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thalamus
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the structure of the brain that relays messages from the sense organs to the cerebral cortex; e.g. the "sensory switchboard"
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theta waves
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the high amplitude, slow, regular waves that are exhibited during early light sleep (stages 1-2). A person daydreaming exhibits these waves
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tonic clonic seizure
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stiffening-jerking; a major motor seizure involving all muscle groups; previously termed GRAND MAL (big bad) seizure
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verbal prosody
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rhythmic and intonational aspect of language
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Wernicke's area
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controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
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2 Types of Cholinergic (Ach) cells
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1) Nicotinic - excitatory and enhances alertness, 2) Muscarinic - inhibitory; found in smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands
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Catecholamines
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Involved with personality, mood, memory, & sleep. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline); Epinephrine (adrenaline); Dopamine.
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Possible neurotransmitter causes of depression...
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Low levels of norepinephrine and/or serotonin.
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Possible neurotransmitter causes of schizophrenia...
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High levels of Dopamine and/or Serotonin.
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Myasthenia gravis
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autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness of voluntary muscles; caused by a deficiency of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junctions
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Low levels of SEROTONIN can cause...
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depression, suicide, PTSD, OCD, aggression, mania, bulimia.
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Motor symptoms in Huntington's caused by...
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degeneration of GABA in the basal ganglia
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Excessive GLUTAMATE can cause...
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seizures, stroke related brain damage, Huntington's, Alzheimer's, and other neurodegenerative disorders
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High levels of Dopamine linked to...
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schizophrena &Tourette's (movement)
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High levels of Serotonin linked to...
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schizophrenia, autism, and anorexia
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Serotonin (5-HT) regulates...
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[is an inhibitory neurotransmitter] mood, hunger,temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression.
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Endorphins
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"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
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Peripheral Nervous System
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division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into SOMATIC (voluntary) nervous system and AUTONOMIC (involuntary) nervous system
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Parasympathetic
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A branch of the autonomic nervous system. This system serves as a counterbalance for the sympathetic nerves. Therefore, it causes the heart rate to SLOW DOWN, lower the blood pressure, constrict eye pupils, and increase digestion.
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Sympathetic
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that AROUSES the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (e.g. Fight/Flight)
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CNS Development (5 stages)
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1) Proliferation, 2) Migration, 3) Differentiation, 4) Myelination, 5) Synaptogenesis
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sexual dimorphism
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Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly dimorphic for body size, with males being taller, on average, than females of the same population.
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3 main structures of the Hindbrain
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Medulla, Cerebellum, Pons
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Medulla
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part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure
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Cerebellum
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the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance; if smaller size then possible AUTISM; damage = ATAXIA (loss of balance, slurred speech, severe tremors)
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Pons
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literally means "bridge"; it connects the cerebrum with the cerebellum and brainstem; is involved in regulating body movement, attention, sleep, and alertness
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The 4 subcortical structures of the FOREBRAIN
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1) Thalamus, 2) Hypothalamus, 3) Basal Ganglia, 4) Limbic System
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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
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A small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the body's way of monitoring the change from day to night. "circadian rhythms"
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Frontal Lobe components
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motor, premotor, and prefrontal areas
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Primary Motor Cortex
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The section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement.
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Premotor Cortex
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responsible for storing memory for skilled motor movement such as piano playing; Broca's Area (speech production).
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Prefrontal Cortex
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Specific area of the brain responsible for attention, motor inhibition, strategy formation and evaluation of risk taking and rule breaking; executive -higher level cognitions.
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Damage to Primary Motor Cortex
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Flaccid Hemiplegia (loss of muscle tone) in contralateral to damage; also loss of reflexes.
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Damage to Premotor Cortex
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Broca's/expressive aphasia - difficulties producing spoken and written language.
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Damage to Prefrontal Cortex
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*Pseudodepression (apathy, lethargy, narrowing of interests, reduced emotional reactions and interest in sex, impaired memory and attn); *Pseudopsychopathy (loss of social tact, empathy, incr impulsivity, sexual disinhibition; *Cognitive Deficits (probs in abstract thinking, planning ability, decision making, inability to remember temporal order of events)
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Hypofrontality
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Reduced activity in prefrontal cortex; Linked to ADHD and schizophrenia (negative symptoms)
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Somatosensory Cortex
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Area of the parietal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position (proprioception)
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Asomatognosia
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Inability to recognize part of one's own body, seen with nondominant Parietal Lobe (or less commonly premotor cortex) lesions
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contralateral neglect
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damage to parts of the right parietal lobe produces a complete lack of attention to the left half of the body
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ideational apraxia
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an inability to perform a purposeful motor act, either automatically or upon command; an inability to retain the idea of the task and to formulate the necessary motor patterns (SEQUENCES); the patient no longer understands the overall concept of the act
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ideomotor apraxia
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The inability to carry out a simple motor activity in response to a verbal command, even though this same activity is readily performed spontaneously.
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Parietal Lobe
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associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli (e.g. pain, touch)
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Temporal Lobe
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The part of the brain that processes information from the senses of HEARING, SMELL, and TASTE, and other sensory and motor tasks; plays a role in LTM encoding/retrieval; lesions can cause anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
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Auditory Cortex
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The area of the temporal lobes that receives and processes auditory information. Damage can result in auditory agnosia and auditory hallucinations.
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Wernicke's aphasia
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Also known as fluent, sensory or receptive aphasia, a form of language loss or impairment in which speech consists of rapid, clearly spoken words or sentences, and even proper phrases and sequences of words, but is generally meaningless in content. People with this condition often have difficulty in understanding what other people say.
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Occipital Lobe
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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual cortex, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
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visual cortex
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located in back of brain in occipital lobes, main info-processing center for visual info
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Damage to Occipital Lobe
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can cause visual agnosia, visual hallucinations, or cortical blindness
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Simultanagnosia
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inability to perceive more than one object at a time
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contralateral representation
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left hemisphere controls the right and vice-versa except olfaction; visual info from each eye goes to both sides of brain
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hemispheric specialization
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Left= analytic thought, logic, language (words), science and math. Right= holistic thought, hunches, intuition, creativity, art, music, language (body language). They compliment each other
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split-brain studies
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corpus callosum was cut; Sperry & Gazzaniga found that numbers, words and pictures seen in right visual field (left Hemi) can be repeated or described with no difficulty b/c the left hemisphere is dominant for language. However if shown in the left visual field (right Hemi) the person often did not see anything. but could respond nonverbally by selecting the object indicated.
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dichotic listening task
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subjects report more digits heard by the ear contralateral to the hemisphere dominant in language; i.e. if language is lateralized to the LEFT, subject reports numbers heard in RIGHT ear
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gender differences in language lateralization
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on language related tasks, only the LEFT Hemi was active for males, while both LEFT and RIGHT Hemi's were active for females
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Structural neuroimaging techniques
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CT & MRI, to Dx blood clots, tumors, multiple sclerois
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Functional viewing neuroimaging techniques
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fMRI, PET, SPECT to see brain activity to assess cerebrovascular disease, dementia, schizophrenia, Alzheimers
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Trichromatic Theory
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Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtz theory. (Believed to work at the retinal level of processing)
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Opponent-Process Theory
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Hering's visual theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; evidence supported by afterimages. (Believed to work at the Thalamus level)
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Color Blindness
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An inability to distinguish certain color combinations (sex-linked trait: 8% of males and .5% of females). Red-green is most common, then yellow-blue; 1) Monochromats-totally colorblind 2) Dichromats-partially colorblind [missing 1 pigment] 3) Trichromats- discriminate all colors.
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Binocular cues
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Depth cues such as retinal disparity and convergence that depend on the use of two eyes; responsible for depth perception of objects at relatively close distances.
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Monocular cues
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Information about depth that relies on the input of just one eye - includes relative size, light and shadow, interposition (overlap) of objects, relative motion (motion parallax), and linear and atmospheric perspective.
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Olfaction processes
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Olfactory receptors synapse immediately with neurons of the olfactory bulbs in the brain with no pathways to the thalamus; signals sent to orbitofrontal for ODORS and amygdala for MEMORY.
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Cutaneous Senses
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skin senses, including pressure on the skin, warmth, cold, pain, vibration, movement across the skin, and stretch of the skin
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Psychophysics
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the study of how physical energy relates to or translated into psychological experience including the study of how well humans detect differences in stimuli and thresholds for perception.
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Weber's Law
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The theory stating that the size of a just noticeable difference is a CONSTANT PROPORTION of the size of the initial stimulus (e.g. 1 gram must be added to 10 grams for an increase in wt to be detected, then 10 gr to 100 gr, etc)
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Fechner's Law
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A law that expresses the relationship between the intensity of the sensation and the intensity of the stimulus, and states that sensation increases more slowly as intensity increases; stimulus changes are LOGARITHMICALLY related to psychological sensations.
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Steven's Power Law
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a law of magnitude estimation that is more accurate than Fechner's law and covers a wider variety of stimuli; uses EXPONENTIAL function (e.g. if a person places a value 3 on a tone, they hear another tone and name it a 6 if they think it's twice as loud)
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HERA
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Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry; LEFT cerebral cortex for encoding memories and RIGHT is for retrieval
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Temporal Lobe (memory func)
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encoding, storage and retrieval of LT declarative memories
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acalculia
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inability to calculate
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acetylcholine (Ach)
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neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, & memory; also involved in REM, sleep/wake cycle. Undersupply of production causes Alzheimer's.
|
|
|
tactile agnosia
|
From damage to Parietal Lobe; inability to recognize objects by touch
|
|
|
agonist
|
enhances effect
|
|
|
agraphia
|
inability to write
|
|
|
alexia
|
inability to read
|
|
|
alpha waves
|
seen when an individual is in a relaxed, unfocused, yet still awake state
|
|
|
amino acids
|
GABA, Glycine, & Glutamate
|
|
|
amygdala
|
a part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
|
|
|
anhedonia
|
Inability to experience pleasure, associated with some mood and schizophrenic disorders.
|
|
|
anosagnosia
|
From damage to Parietal Lobe; Failure to recognize the symptoms or deficits associated with one's own disorder.
|
|
|
antagonist
|
inhibits effect
|
|
|
anterograde amnesia
|
the inability to form NEW memories because of brain trauma
|
|
|
aphasia
|
Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing Speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing Understanding).
|
|
|
apraxia
|
From damage to Parietal Lobe; Total or partial loss of the ability to perform coordinated movements or manipulate objects in the absence of motor or sensory impairment.
|
|
|
basal ganglia
|
Structures located deep in the brain that play an important role in the initiation of movements, sensorimotor learning, and motoric expressions of emotional states. Includes the CAUDATE NUCLEUS, PUTAMEN, GLOBUS PALLIDUS, and SUBSTANTIA NIGRA. Cell death in the substantia nigra contributes to Parkinson's disease; also implicated in Tourette Syndrome, Autism, OCD.
|
|
|
beta waves
|
The type of brain waves present when a person is awake and alert; typically indicating mental activity.
|
|
|
brain stem
|
The part of the brain that controls functions including heart rate, breathing, and body temperature; includes MIDBRAIN, PONS, and MEDULLA OBLONGATA. Connects to spinal cord.
|
|
|
CAT scan
|
computerized axial tomography (structure)
|
|
|
caudate nucleus
|
Brain structure; part of the BASAL GANGLIA that controls motor behavior and is implicated in obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's, Huntington Disease, ADHD.
|
|
|
cerebellum
|
The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
|
|
|
cerebral cortex
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Comprised of 2 hemispheres and 4 lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.
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Cholinergic
|
synaptic transmission that is mediated by the release of acetylcholine
|
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chorea
|
uncontrollable and irregular muscle movements
|
|
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cingulate gyrus
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satisfaction center of brain; eating & sex
|
|
|
classical neurotransmitters
|
acetylcholine (Ach), catecholamines, serotonin, amino acids
|
|
|
conduction aphasia
|
lesion in connections between Broca's and Wernicke's, difficulty repeating, articulation and comprehension intact, reading out loud poor, writing disturbed, comprehension good
|
|
|
Cryptomnesia
|
perceives information as being an original idea of their own
|
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|
delta waves
|
largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep
|
|
|
diffuse impairment
|
loss of complex cognitive functions
|
|
|
discrete impairment
|
loss of foresight & concern, irresponsibility
|
|
|
dopamine
|
neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of it linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia
|
|
|
enkephalins & endorphins
|
endogenous opioids; regulate stress and pain
|
|
|
GABA & glycine
|
have calming effect; this neurotransmitter is a powerful inhibitory; when LOW - high anxiety, epileptic seizures
|
|
|
Gate control theory
|
The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; it proposes the nervous system can process only a certain amt of info at one time.
|
|
|
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
|
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion
|
|
|
Gerstmann's syndrome
|
a set of four deficits believed to be associated with damage to left parietal lobe (acalculia, finger agnosia, agraphia, and left-right disorientation)
|
|
|
glutamate
|
major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; most common neurotransmitter; abnormal levels found in schizophrenia
|
|
|
hemiparesis
|
slight paralysis or weakness affecting one side of the body
|
|
|
hippocampus
|
part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories
|
|
|
hydroncephalus
|
excessive brain fluid
|
|
|
hypnogogic hallucinations
|
dreamlike auditory or visual experiences while dozing or falling asleep; most common in narcolepsy
|
|
|
hypnopompic hallucinations
|
Occur while waking from sleep ("Pompous upon awakening")
|
|
|
hypothalamus
|
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.
|
|
|
Iatrogenically produced symptoms
|
symptoms caused by medical or psychological treatment
|
|
|
idiopathic
|
Occurring without a known cause
|
|
|
inferior colliculus
|
part of the brain in charge of the response to auditory stimulus
|
|
|
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
|
A collection of symptoms, including tameness, extreme sexual behavior, and oral exploration, that results from damage to the temporal lobes, and the amygdala in particular.
|
|
|
locus coeruleus
|
located in reticular formation, involved in attention, arousal, sleep cycles; associated with depression and panic disorder
|
|
|
lymbic system
|
- places a role in emotion and memory; contains the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cyrus
|
|
|
norepinephrine
|
a neurotransmitter that activates the sympathetic response to stress, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure in support of rapid action; depression - low; manic - high
|
|
|
paraplegia
|
paralysis of both legs and the lower part of the body
|
|
|
paresis
|
muscle weakness or partial paralysis
|
|
|
paresthesia
|
abnormal skin sensations (as tingling or tickling or itching or burning) usually associated with peripheral nerve damage
|
|
|
petit mal seizure
|
milder form of seizure lasting only a few seconds and does not include convulsive movements; also known as ABSENCE seizures
|
|
|
pituitary
|
gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system
|
|
|
pons & medulla
|
"switchboard" regulating the flow of informatinon between the brain and the rest of the body. Controls facial expression, sleep, respiration, movement, cardiovascular, blood pressure, breathing, etc.
|
|
|
Positron emission tomography (PET)
|
used for demonstrating brain activity or functioning
|
|
|
proprioception
|
the ability to sense the position, location, orientation and movement of the body and its parts
|
|
|
prosopagnosia
|
inability to recognize or identify a known face or individual; can be caused from damage to the junction of the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes
|
|
|
reticular activating system (RAS)
|
filter for incoming sensory information; related to attention, arousal, awaking/sleeping cycle
|
|
|
retrograde amnesia
|
loss of memories that were stored before a traumatic event
|
|
|
serotonin
|
A neurotransmitter whose abnormal activity is linked to depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders.
|
|
|
substantia nigra
|
A structure in the Basal Ganglia, involved in movement; produces Dopamine so if injured can cause Parkinsons
|
|
|
synesthesia
|
a blending of sensory experience that causes some people to "see" sounds or "taste" colors, for example
|
|
|
thalamus
|
the structure of the brain that relays messages from the sense organs to the cerebral cortex; e.g. the "sensory switchboard"
|
|
|
theta waves
|
the high amplitude, slow, regular waves that are exhibited during early light sleep (stages 1-2). A person daydreaming exhibits these waves
|
|
|
tonic clonic seizure
|
stiffening-jerking; a major motor seizure involving all muscle groups; previously termed GRAND MAL (big bad) seizure
|
|
|
verbal prosody
|
rhythmic and intonational aspect of language
|
|
|
Wernicke's area
|
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
|
|
|
2 Types of Cholinergic (Ach) cells
|
1) Nicotinic - excitatory and enhances alertness, 2) Muscarinic - inhibitory; found in smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands
|
|
|
Catecholamines
|
Involved with personality, mood, memory, & sleep. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline); Epinephrine (adrenaline); Dopamine.
|
|
|
Possible neurotransmitter causes of depression...
|
Low levels of norepinephrine and/or serotonin.
|
|
|
Possible neurotransmitter causes of schizophrenia...
|
High levels of Dopamine and/or Serotonin.
|
|
|
Myasthenia gravis
|
autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness of voluntary muscles; caused by a deficiency of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junctions
|
|
|
Low levels of SEROTONIN can cause...
|
depression, suicide, PTSD, OCD, aggression, mania, bulimia.
|
|
|
Motor symptoms in Huntington's caused by...
|
degeneration of GABA in the basal ganglia
|
|
|
Excessive GLUTAMATE can cause...
|
seizures, stroke related brain damage, Huntington's, Alzheimer's, and other neurodegenerative disorders
|
|
|
High levels of Dopamine linked to...
|
schizophrena &Tourette's (movement)
|
|
|
High levels of Serotonin linked to...
|
schizophrenia, autism, and anorexia
|
|
|
Serotonin (5-HT) regulates...
|
[is an inhibitory neurotransmitter] mood, hunger,temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression.
|
|
|
Endorphins
|
"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
|
|
|
Peripheral Nervous System
|
division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into SOMATIC (voluntary) nervous system and AUTONOMIC (involuntary) nervous system
|
|
|
Parasympathetic
|
A branch of the autonomic nervous system. This system serves as a counterbalance for the sympathetic nerves. Therefore, it causes the heart rate to SLOW DOWN, lower the blood pressure, constrict eye pupils, and increase digestion.
|
|
|
Sympathetic
|
the division of the autonomic nervous system that AROUSES the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (e.g. Fight/Flight)
|
|
|
CNS Development (5 stages)
|
1) Proliferation, 2) Migration, 3) Differentiation, 4) Myelination, 5) Synaptogenesis
|
|
|
sexual dimorphism
|
Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly dimorphic for body size, with males being taller, on average, than females of the same population.
|
|
|
3 main structures of the Hindbrain
|
Medulla, Cerebellum, Pons
|
|
|
Medulla
|
part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure
|
|
|
Cerebellum
|
the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance; if smaller size then possible AUTISM; damage = ATAXIA (loss of balance, slurred speech, severe tremors)
|
|
|
Pons
|
literally means "bridge"; it connects the cerebrum with the cerebellum and brainstem; is involved in regulating body movement, attention, sleep, and alertness
|
|
|
The 4 subcortical structures of the FOREBRAIN
|
1) Thalamus, 2) Hypothalamus, 3) Basal Ganglia, 4) Limbic System
|
|
|
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
|
A small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the body's way of monitoring the change from day to night. "circadian rhythms"
|
|
|
Frontal Lobe components
|
motor, premotor, and prefrontal areas
|
|
|
Primary Motor Cortex
|
The section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement.
|
|
|
Premotor Cortex
|
responsible for storing memory for skilled motor movement such as piano playing; Broca's Area (speech production).
|
|
|
Prefrontal Cortex
|
Specific area of the brain responsible for attention, motor inhibition, strategy formation and evaluation of risk taking and rule breaking; executive -higher level cognitions.
|
|
|
Damage to Primary Motor Cortex
|
Flaccid Hemiplegia (loss of muscle tone) in contralateral to damage; also loss of reflexes.
|
|
|
Damage to Premotor Cortex
|
Broca's/expressive aphasia - difficulties producing spoken and written language.
|
|
|
Damage to Prefrontal Cortex
|
*Pseudodepression (apathy, lethargy, narrowing of interests, reduced emotional reactions and interest in sex, impaired memory and attn); *Pseudopsychopathy (loss of social tact, empathy, incr impulsivity, sexual disinhibition; *Cognitive Deficits (probs in abstract thinking, planning ability, decision making, inability to remember temporal order of events)
|
|
|
Hypofrontality
|
Reduced activity in prefrontal cortex; Linked to ADHD and schizophrenia (negative symptoms)
|
|
|
Somatosensory Cortex
|
Area of the parietal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position (proprioception)
|
|
|
Asomatognosia
|
Inability to recognize part of one's own body, seen with nondominant Parietal Lobe (or less commonly premotor cortex) lesions
|
|
|
contralateral neglect
|
damage to parts of the right parietal lobe produces a complete lack of attention to the left half of the body
|
|
|
ideational apraxia
|
an inability to perform a purposeful motor act, either automatically or upon command; an inability to retain the idea of the task and to formulate the necessary motor patterns (SEQUENCES); the patient no longer understands the overall concept of the act
|
|
|
ideomotor apraxia
|
The inability to carry out a simple motor activity in response to a verbal command, even though this same activity is readily performed spontaneously.
|
|
|
Parietal Lobe
|
associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli (e.g. pain, touch)
|
|
|
Temporal Lobe
|
The part of the brain that processes information from the senses of HEARING, SMELL, and TASTE, and other sensory and motor tasks; plays a role in LTM encoding/retrieval; lesions can cause anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
|
|
|
Auditory Cortex
|
The area of the temporal lobes that receives and processes auditory information. Damage can result in auditory agnosia and auditory hallucinations.
|
|
|
Wernicke's aphasia
|
Also known as fluent, sensory or receptive aphasia, a form of language loss or impairment in which speech consists of rapid, clearly spoken words or sentences, and even proper phrases and sequences of words, but is generally meaningless in content. People with this condition often have difficulty in understanding what other people say.
|
|
|
Occipital Lobe
|
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual cortex, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
|
|
|
visual cortex
|
located in back of brain in occipital lobes, main info-processing center for visual info
|
|
|
Damage to Occipital Lobe
|
can cause visual agnosia, visual hallucinations, or cortical blindness
|
|
|
Simultanagnosia
|
inability to perceive more than one object at a time
|
|
|
contralateral representation
|
left hemisphere controls the right and vice-versa except olfaction; visual info from each eye goes to both sides of brain
|
|
|
hemispheric specialization
|
Left= analytic thought, logic, language (words), science and math. Right= holistic thought, hunches, intuition, creativity, art, music, language (body language). They compliment each other
|
|
|
split-brain studies
|
corpus callosum was cut; Sperry & Gazzaniga found that numbers, words and pictures seen in right visual field (left Hemi) can be repeated or described with no difficulty b/c the left hemisphere is dominant for language. However if shown in the left visual field (right Hemi) the person often did not see anything. but could respond nonverbally by selecting the object indicated.
|
|
|
dichotic listening task
|
subjects report more digits heard by the ear contralateral to the hemisphere dominant in language; i.e. if language is lateralized to the LEFT, subject reports numbers heard in RIGHT ear
|
|
|
gender differences in language lateralization
|
on language related tasks, only the LEFT Hemi was active for males, while both LEFT and RIGHT Hemi's were active for females
|
|
|
Structural neuroimaging techniques
|
CT & MRI, to Dx blood clots, tumors, multiple sclerois
|
|
|
Functional viewing neuroimaging techniques
|
fMRI, PET, SPECT to see brain activity to assess cerebrovascular disease, dementia, schizophrenia, Alzheimers
|
|
|
Trichromatic Theory
|
Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtz theory. (Believed to work at the retinal level of processing)
|
|
|
Opponent-Process Theory
|
Hering's visual theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; evidence supported by afterimages. (Believed to work at the Thalamus level)
|
|
|
Color Blindness
|
An inability to distinguish certain color combinations (sex-linked trait: 8% of males and .5% of females). Red-green is most common, then yellow-blue; 1) Monochromats-totally colorblind 2) Dichromats-partially colorblind [missing 1 pigment] 3) Trichromats- discriminate all colors.
|
|
|
Binocular cues
|
Depth cues such as retinal disparity and convergence that depend on the use of two eyes; responsible for depth perception of objects at relatively close distances.
|
|
|
Monocular cues
|
Information about depth that relies on the input of just one eye - includes relative size, light and shadow, interposition (overlap) of objects, relative motion (motion parallax), and linear and atmospheric perspective.
|
|
|
Olfaction processes
|
Olfactory receptors synapse immediately with neurons of the olfactory bulbs in the brain with no pathways to the thalamus; signals sent to orbitofrontal for ODORS and amygdala for MEMORY.
|
|
|
Cutaneous Senses
|
skin senses, including pressure on the skin, warmth, cold, pain, vibration, movement across the skin, and stretch of the skin
|
|
|
Psychophysics
|
the study of how physical energy relates to or translated into psychological experience including the study of how well humans detect differences in stimuli and thresholds for perception.
|
|
|
Weber's Law
|
The theory stating that the size of a just noticeable difference is a CONSTANT PROPORTION of the size of the initial stimulus (e.g. 1 gram must be added to 10 grams for an increase in wt to be detected, then 10 gr to 100 gr, etc)
|
|
|
Fechner's Law
|
A law that expresses the relationship between the intensity of the sensation and the intensity of the stimulus, and states that sensation increases more slowly as intensity increases; stimulus changes are LOGARITHMICALLY related to psychological sensations.
|
|
|
Steven's Power Law
|
a law of magnitude estimation that is more accurate than Fechner's law and covers a wider variety of stimuli; uses EXPONENTIAL function (e.g. if a person places a value 3 on a tone, they hear another tone and name it a 6 if they think it's twice as loud)
|
|
|
HERA
|
Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry; LEFT cerebral cortex for encoding memories and RIGHT is for retrieval
|
|
|
Temporal Lobe (memory func)
|
encoding, storage and retrieval of LT declarative memories
|
|
|
cerebellum [functions]
|
balance and posture: refined movemnt, coordination, posture, attentional shifting, sensory motor learning
|
|
|
medulla [functions]
|
regulates vital functions: basic reflexes (e.g. coughing) & vital processes (e.g. heartrate)
flow of info from spinal cord to brain |
|
|
pons [functions]
|
connects 2 halves of cerebellum
integration of movement from two sides of brain |
|
|
reticular formation [location, functions]
|
midbrain
respiration, coughing, REM sleep |
|
|
reticular activating system [functions]
|
arousal, sleep (part. sleep-wake cycle), sensory screening (Mom who wakes for baby)
|
|
|
thalamus [functions]
|
relay station of sensory info (except olfaction)
|
|
|
hypothalamus [functions]
|
most of body needs; helps maintain homeostasis
|
|
|
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SN) [functions]
|
sleep-wake cycle, circadian rhythms
|
|
|
basal ganglia [functions]
|
motor-related
|
|
|
limbic system [functions]
|
mediation of emotion
|
|
|
amygdala [functions/memory]
|
motivation and emotion
attaches emotion to memory; recall of emotionally-charged events |
|
|
hippocampus [memory functions]
|
consolidation of long-term declarative memory
|
|
|
primary motor cortex [functions]
|
control of voluntary movement
|
|
|
Broca's area [location, function]
|
premotor cortex
speech production |
|
|
prefrontal cortex [function]
|
executive functioning
|
|
|
parietal lobe [function]
|
senses
|
|
|
somatosensory cortex [function]
|
governs senses (except aud. and vis.)
|
|
|
temporal lobe [memory function; sense]
|
encoding, retrieval, storage of long-term declarative memories
auditory |
|
|
Wernicke's area [location, function]
|
left temporal lobe
comprehension of language |
|
|
occipital lobe [location, function]
|
visual cortex
vision |
|
|
enlarged ventricles {correlated with}
|
correlated with hydrocephalis and schizophrenia
|
|
|
sympathetic {correlated with}
|
arousal
|
|
|
parasympathetic {correlated with}
|
calming down
|
|
|
hindbrain contains
|
brain stem & cerebellum
|
|
|
brain stem contains
|
pons & medulla
|
|
|
midbrain contains
|
reticular formation
|
|
|
forebrain cortical structures
|
frontal, parietal, temporal & occipital lobes
|
|
|
frontal lobe cortices
|
primary motor, pre-motor, prefrontal
|
|
|
primary motor cortex functions
|
voluntary movemt, humunculis; when damaged reslts in flaccid hemoplegia & loss of reflexes
|
|
|
flaccid hemoplegia def.
|
loss of muscle tone
|
|
|
prefrontal cortex [functions]
|
exec fnctioning, mem, emotion
|
|
|
prefrontal cortex {correlated with}
|
ADHD, Schizophr, pseudo depres & psychopathy, age-related cogn decline
|
|
|
parietal lobe [functions]
|
pain, temp, gustation, proprioception
|
|
|
proprioception definition
|
feedback solely on the status of the inside of the body, such as whether you're moving with required effort, what parts are being used
|
|
|
Gertsmann syndrome occurs [area]
|
when left parietal is damaged
|
|
|
temporal lobe [structure and functions]
|
auditory cortex, and memory related stuff
|
|
|
auditory cortex [functions]
|
mediates auditory sensation and perception
|
|
|
temporal lobe [memory]
|
encoding, retrieval, storage of memory
|
|
|
Occipital lobe [structure]
|
visual cortex
|
|
|
visual cortex [functions]
|
mediates vision, perception, recognition and memory
|
|
|
subcortical structures/systems (4)
|
limbic system, basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus
|
|
|
limbic system structures (2)
|
hippocampus, amygdala
|
|
|
hippocampus [functions]
|
(in temporal lobe), consolidation of long-term declarative or explicit memory, learning and memory, spatial, visual, verbal info, cogn maps
|
|
|
damage to hippocampus {correlated with}
|
Kluver-Busie syndrome
|
|
|
amydala [memory functions]
|
implicit emotional memory, motivation, olfactory memory
|
|
|
basal ganglia [functions]
|
caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra (Park.'s), planning, orgnizing, sensory motor learning, coordinating movement, stereotyped species- specific stereotyped expressions (smiling, etc.)
|
|
|
thalamus [functions]
|
relay station for sensory info (except olfaction); motor, language, memory
|
|
|
low thiamine {correlated with}
|
in temporal lobe leads to Korsikoff syndrome [drinking too much alcohol at the relay station]
|
|
|
hypothalamus [functions]
|
(connected directly to brain stem, the basics) hunger, sex, sleep, thirst, body temp, movement, emotional reaction, homeostasis, influences ANS & pituitary and endrocrine glands
|
|
|
superchiasmic nucleus [location, functions]
|
in hypothalamus
circadian rhythm, a lot of sleep stuff (connects to the RAS) |
|
|
long-term memory [structures] (4)
|
prefrontal cortex,
temporal lobe, thalamus (relay station), hippocampus |
|
|
Memory: 2 sec, large capacity, echoic, iconic store
|
Sensory memory
|
|
|
Memory: 18-30 sec storage, it holds 7 +/- 2 (more if you use chunking)
|
Short-term memory (also called primary or active memory)
|
|
|
long-term memory; strategies to move info from short-term to long-term
|
rehearsal (repeating), elaboration (give it meaning)
|
|
|
implicit memory =
|
procedural memory
|
|
|
explicit memory =
|
declarative memory
|
|
|
prospective memory =
|
thinking about what you have to do in the future
|
|
|
recent memory =
|
secondary memory
|
|
|
Lesion
|
Tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.
|
|
|
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
a) CT (Computed Tomography) scan b) PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan c) Electroencephalogram (EEG) d) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) e)fMRI (functional MRI) |
c) Electroencephalogram (EEG)
|
|
|
A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called a CAT scan.
A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called a CAT scan. a) CT (Computed Tomography) scan b) PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan c) Electroencephalogram (EEG) d) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) e)fMRI (functional MRI) |
a) CT (Computed Tomography) scan
|
|
|
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
a) CT (Computed Tomography) scan b) PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan c) Electroencephalogram (EEG) d) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) e)fMRI (functional MRI) |
b) PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan
|
|
|
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
a) CT (Computed Tomography) scan b) PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan c) Electroencephalogram (EEG) d) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) e)fMRI (functional MRI) |
d) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
|
|
|
A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.
a) CT (Computed Tomography) scan b) PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan c) Electroencephalogram (EEG) d) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) e)fMRI (functional MRI) |
e)fMRI (functional MRI)
|
|
|
Brainstem
|
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brianstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
|
|
|
Medulla
|
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
|
|
|
Reticular formation
|
A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
|
|
|
Thalamus
|
The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
|
|
|
Cerebellum
|
The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
|
|
|
association areas
|
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
|
|
|
aphasia
|
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
|
|
|
Broca's area
|
controls language expression -- an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
|
|
|
Wernicke's area
|
Controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
|
|
|
plasticity
|
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways on experience
|
|
|
neurogenesis
|
the formation of new neurons
|
|
|
corpus callosum
|
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
|
|
|
split brain
|
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corps callosum) connecting them
|
|
|
consciousness
|
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
|
|
|
cognitive neuroscience
|
the inter-disciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
|
|
|
dual processing
|
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
|
|
|
limbic system
|
neural system that sits between the brain's older parts and its cerebral hemisphere. its hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland
|
|
|
amygdala
|
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system that's linked to emotion
|
|
|
hypothalamus
|
neural structure lying below the thalamus that directs maintenance activities like eating, drinking and body temperature. it helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward
|
|
|
cerebral cortex
|
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; it's the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
|
|
|
glial cells
|
cells in the nervous center that support, nourish, and protect neurons
|
|
|
frontal lobes
|
part of the cerebral cortex directly behind the forehead; used in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
|
|
|
parietal lobes
|
part of the cerebral cortex at the top and rear of the head; it receives sensory input for touch and body position
|
|
|
occipital lobes
|
part of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
|
|
|
temporal lobes
|
part of the cerebral cortex around each ear that includes the auditory areas that receive information mainly from the opposite ear
|
|
|
motor cortex
|
area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement
|
|
|
sensory cortex
|
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
|
|
|
biological psychology
|
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.
|
|
|
neuron
|
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
|
|
|
sensory neurons
|
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
|
|
|
motor neurons
|
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
|
|
|
interneurons
|
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
|
|
|
dentrite
|
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
|
|
|
axon
|
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
|
|
|
myelin sheath
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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
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action potential
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a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
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threshold
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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
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synapse
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the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
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neurotransmitters
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chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
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reuptake
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a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.
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endorphins
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"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
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nervous system
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the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
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central nervous system (CNS)
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the brain and spinal cord.
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
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nerves
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bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
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somatic nervous system
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
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autonomic nervous system
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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
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sympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
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parasympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
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reflex
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a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
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endocrine system
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the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
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hormones
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chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
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adrenal glands
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a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
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pituitary gland
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the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
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