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213 Cards in this Set
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- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What is Negative Feedback? |
When a certain blood concentration of a hormone is reached, or when target cells have responded, the endocrine glands that was releasing the hormone is inhibited. |
When does the release of a hormone stop? |
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What are the two hormone groups? |
Protein Hormones: -attaches ON membrane -water soluble Steroid Hormones: -diffuses INTO target cell -lipid soluble |
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What is the "Master Gland", and what 8 hormones does it produce? |
Pituitary Gland. Anterior -FSH, TSH, ACTH, LH, PRL, hGH Posterior Oxytocin, ADH |
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What does ADH do? |
Targets kidneys to increase the reabsorption of water in nephrons, increases water retention, decreases urine production. |
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What is Diabetes Insipidus? |
Hyposecretion of ADH. |
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What are the effects of diabetes Insipidus? |
-low ADH production -decreased water reabsorption in kidneys -lots of sugary pee |
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Is there a treatment for Diabetes Insipidus? |
Possibly an ADH supplement |
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Where is Oxytocin created/stored |
Produced in the hypothalamus, stored in the posterior pituitary |
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What does oxytocin do? |
Targets uterus and mammary glands, initiates strong contractions, triggers milk release |
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What does PRL stand for? |
Prolactin |
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Where is PRL produced and what does it do? |
Produced in anterior pituitary, targets the mammary glands to stimulate milk production. |
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What does FSH stand for? |
Follicle stimulating hormone |
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What does FSH do? |
Targets ovaries + testes to stimulate follicle development and promote development of sperm cells. |
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What stimulates FSH |
gnRH |
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What does LH stand for and what does it do? |
Luteinizing hormone. Targets ovaries and testes. Women: stimulates ovulation, dev corpus leteum, and promotes release of progesterone Men: stimulates testosterone production |
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What is hGH, and where is it created |
Human growth hormone. Created in anterior pituitary |
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What is the action of hGH |
-Promotes growth and cell division -protein synthesis -growth of bones |
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What causes pituitary dwarfism |
-low GH secretions during childhood -results in low growth of bone and cartilage |
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Any treatments for pituitary dwarfism? |
HGH hormone injections/ supplements during childhood |
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What causes Gigantism? |
-high secretion of hGH during childhood -results in excessive growth in bonr until adulthood |
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What is Acromegaly? |
Hypersecretion of hGH. -continual secretion of GH during childhood |
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If someone has Acromegaly, what would happen to their bones? |
Their bones would thicken, as their bones can't grow anymore lengthwise. CAUSES: Headaches, cardiovascular disease, fatigue, breathing difficulties |
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What are the diseases involved with hyposecretion and hypersecretion if hGH? |
Hyposecretion: pituitary dwarfism Hypersecretion: Gigantism, Acromegaly |
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What is TSH? |
Thyroid stimulating hormone |
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What stimulates TSH |
TRF (thyroid releasing factor). Created in hypothalamus. |
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What is a tropic hormone? |
A hormone that stimulates another gland to release another hormone. |
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What does TSH do? |
Targets the thyroid to stimulate the release of thyroxin. |
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Where is the thyroid located? |
In the neck, wrapped around the trachea. |
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What hormones are produced in the thyroid gland? |
Thyroxin and calcitonin |
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What is the role of the thyroid gland and hormones produced there? |
Increases overall metabolic rate, regulates growth and development as well as onset of sexual maturity. |
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What does ACTH stand for? And where does it target? |
Adrenocorticotropic hormone. Targets the adrenal cortex |
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What does ACTH do? |
Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens in response to stress |
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What does T⁴ produce? |
ATP and heat |
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What is cretinism? |
Hyposecretion of thyroxin. In babies. Dwarfism. The child doesn't develop properly. |
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Treatment for cretinism? |
Thyroxin hormone pills |
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Hypothyroidism |
Low thyroid secretions, low thyroxin. Metabolic rate is **** and sugars aren't burned off. |
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Symptoms of hypothyroidism |
-tiredness/fatigue -weight gain -infertility -hoarse, dry voice -always cold |
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Goitre |
Enlarged thyroid gland, overstimulated by TSH, low iodine levels in body. Why? Iodine is needed to make thyroxin. |
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What is hyperthyroidism? |
Too much thyroxin. Metabolism is super high, very low blood sugar. Hot all the time |
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Symptoms of hypothyroidism |
Very skinny, lotsenergy. Bulging eyes, insomnia. Massive appetite. |
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What does calcitonin do? |
Decreases blood calcium by depositing it in bones and teeth. Decreases reabsorption from gut. |
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What does calcitonin target? |
Bones, teeth, and gut |
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What hormone does the parathyroid release? |
PTH, parathyroid hormone |
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What does PTH target? |
Bones, intestines, kidneys |
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What does PTH do? |
Raises blood calcium levels by stimulating the bone cells to release calcium, increases absorption of calcium from food, and the kidneys reabsorb calcium from urine. |
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What kind of corticoid is cortisol? |
Glucocorticoid |
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What does cortisol target? |
Muscle, liver, fat |
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What does cortisol do? |
Converts proteins into glucose stimulates tissues to raise blood glucose and break down protein. |
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What kind of corticoid is aldosterone? |
Mineralcorticoid |
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What does aldosterone target? |
Kidney tubules |
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What does aldosterone do? |
Increases blood volume by increasing reabsorption of water from urine. |
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If you had low blood pressure, what hormone might be stimulated? |
Aldosterone. |
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What is Addison's disease? |
Hyposecretion of cortisol and aldosterone. Usually due to destruction of adrenal cortex by autoimmune disease. Also a decrease in ACTH. |
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What are the symptoms of Addison's disease? |
-fatigue -weak -lots of appetite -cravings for salt |
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Treatment for Addison's disease? |
Cortisol pills/injections. DETECTION VIA BLOOD TEST FOR ACTH |
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What is Cushing's disease? |
Hypersecretion of cortisol and aldosterone due to a tumor in the pituitary gland. (Too much ACTH leads to too much cortisol and aldosterone). |
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Symptoms of Cushing's disease? |
-weight gain -weak immune system -bruise easily -mood swings -infertility |
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Cure for Cushing's disease? |
Nope |
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What hormones are created in the adrenal cortex? |
Cortisol, aldosterone, testosterone(in both sexes) |
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What does the adrenal medulla produce? |
Epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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What does epinephrine and norepinephrine target? |
Blood vessels, heart, lungs, air passages, irises, liver |
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What is the common name for epinephrine? |
Adrenaline |
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What do epinephrine and norepinephrine do? |
Fight or flight hormones. Raise blood glucose levels. Sends blood to core and big ass muscles. Increases breathing and heart rates, dilates pupils, hydrolyzed liver glycogen. Constricts digestive system. |
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What hormones does the pancreas release? |
Insulin and glucagon |
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What do beta cells and alpha cells do? |
Beta cells produce insulin, alpha cells produce glucagon. |
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What is the role of insulin? |
Decreases blood glucose levels by increasing cell permeability to glucose and conversion of bloid glucose into liver and muscle glycogen. |
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What does insulin target? |
All cells, especially liver and muscle cells. |
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What does glucagon do? |
Raises blood glucose by converting glycogen into glucose. |
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What does glucagon target? |
Liver and muscles |
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What is Diabetes mellitus? |
When the body either doesn't produce enough insulin or does not respond to insulin. |
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What is type 1 diabetes? |
Juvenile onset diabetes. Body doesn't produce enough insulin. |
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What are the symptoms of type 1 diabetes? |
-Fatigue -Extreme thirst -sugary pee |
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What is type 2 diabetes? |
Adult onset, insulin resistance. Insulin receptors vecome resistant to insulin. If cells can't recieve insulin, this can become type 1. |
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Effects of long term untreated diabetes? |
Blindness, nerve damage, ❤ disease, kidney failure, gangrene. DEATH |
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Dafuq do the ovaries produce? |
Estrogen and progesterone my dudes |
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Role of estrogen |
Stimulates uterine lining growth and promotes development of female secondary sexual characteristics |
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What does progesterone do? |
Promotes growth of uterine lining and prevents uterine muscle contractions. |
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What do the testes create? |
Testosterone |
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What does testosterone do? |
Promotes sperm formation and secondary sexual characteristics in men |
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Graves disease |
If an adult has hypothyroidism it's called Graves disease |
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What is homeostasis? |
A state of relative stability. Maintaining the body withing a narrow range of conditions |
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How does the human body react to changes in its internal and external environment? |
Nerves and hormones |
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What are the two main divisions of the nervous system? |
CNS + PNS |
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What does the CNS consist of? |
Brain + spinal cord |
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What does the CNS do? |
Integrates and processes info sent by nerves Reflexes |
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What are the two divisions of the PNS? |
Motor pathways and sensory pathways |
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What does the sensory pathway of the PNS do? |
Carries sensory info to CNS from receptors |
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What does the motor pathway of the PNS do? |
Carries info from CNS to muscles/glands |
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What are the two divisions of the motor pathways of the PNS? |
Somatic nerves and autonomic nerves |
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What do somatic nerves control? |
Voluntary movement, ex) movement of skeletal muscles |
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What do autonomic nerves control? |
Involuntary muscle. Smooth muscle + cardiac muscle. Controls this like digestion |
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What are the two branches of autonomic nerves? |
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves |
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What do sympathetic nerves do? |
Prepares body for stress/action |
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What do parasympathetic nerves do? |
Brings body down from stress/action. Returns body to normal. |
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What are the two types of cells in the nervous system? |
Neurons and Glial Cells |
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What are neurons? |
Specialized nerve cells which conduct electromechanical impulses. -classified by structure and function |
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What are Glial cells? |
Non conductive cells; provide support for neurons by nourishing cells and removing wastes, defending against infection. |
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Do Glial cells outnumber neurons? |
Yes, 10:1 |
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Structure of motor neuron? |
Large cell body, one long axon. Lots of dendrites. Carries impulses to muscles and glands. |
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What are dendrites? |
Branched "arms" of neuron. Recieve info and send it TO the cell body |
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What do axons do? |
Take impulses away from cell body and sends it to where it's connected to. |
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What do Schwann cells do? |
Produce myelin. Is a Glial cell. There are multiple Schwann cells on every myelinated neuron. Also produces neurilemma |
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What is the myelin sheath and what does it do? |
Myelin sheath is the white fatty layer. Protects neuron from loss of ions and increases speed of neural impulse transmission. |
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What are nodes of Ranvier? |
Sections of the axon where the nerve impulses are actually transmitted. |
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What ks the axon terminal? |
What actually passes the signal to the next cell, which is usually a muscle cell. Releases chemicals called neurotransmitters |
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What is neurilemma and what does it do? |
It's a thin membrane that surrounds the myelin. Promotes the repair and regeneration of axons. |
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What is the structure of sensory neurons? |
Only one dendrite, and a short axon. Bundles of sensory neurons are called ganglions |
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What is a ganglion? |
A bundle of sensory neurons cells |
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What is white matter? |
Neurons with myelin and neurilemma. CAN REGENERATE. In all of the PNS, and some parts of the brain and spinal cord. |
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What is grey matter? |
Neurons that lack myelin and neurilemma. NO REGENERATION |
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Do grey matter neurons have Schwann cells? |
No, if they did, there would be myelin and the cells would be able to regenerate themselves. |
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Inside and outside of the brain, white ir grey matter? |
Inside=white Outside=grey |
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What are receptors? |
Structures that detect stimuli and initiate a nerve impulse |
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What are effectors? |
Structures that react to impulses from motor neurons Ex: muscles |
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What are the three types of neurons? |
Sensory neurons Interneurons Motor neurons |
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Sensory neurons receive info from where? |
Receptors |
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Motor neurons send info to where |
Effectors |
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What is a reflex arc? |
A simple connection of neurons that explain reflexive behavior. -moves directly to and from the brain and spinal cord |
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What are the 5 parts of a reflex arc? |
1) receptor 2) sensory neurons 3) interneuron 4) motor neuron 5) effector |
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What is a nerve impulse? |
An electromechanical event that uses cellular energy to generate a series of action potentials |
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What are the three stages of an action potential? |
1) resting potential 2) depolarization 3) repolarization |
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What is resting membrane potential? |
An unequal distribution of ions across the neural membrane. When not stimulated, it's more positive outside the membrane. -70mV |
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What are three factors that contribute to the inequality of resting membrane potential? |
Na/K pump moves 3Na+ out and 2K+ in. High Na outside, high K inside. Negative proteins and Cl- remain inside Membrane is more permeable to K+, so lots of it leaks out, making the inside even more negative. |
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What does the resting membrane potential look like? |
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What is the potential difference of the resting membrane potential? |
-70mV |
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What is depolarization? |
-stimulus that causes Na+ gates to open. Na+ rapidly -diffuses into cell. |
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What happens in depolarization? |
Membrane reverses polarity due to excessive positive ions inside the membrane. |
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What is the new charge inside the membrane after depolarization? |
40mV |
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What is an action potential? |
Localized reversal of charge |
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What is a threshold? |
Min level of -stimulus required to produce an action potential. Usually -50mV |
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Are threshold levels the same for everyone? |
No. Depending on how high or low your threshold level is, determines how high or low of pain tolerance you have. |
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What happens in the last stage of depolarization? |
Na+ gates close and K+ gates open |
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What happens during repolarization? |
K+ leaves cell by diffusion. This restores the original polarity, except reversed. It's now more positive on the inside and more negative on the outside. |
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How does the reversal of polarity get fixed after repolarization? |
A Na+/K+ pump restores the polarization of the neuron and returns it to resting membrane potential. |
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What is saltatory conduction? |
Conduction of neural impulses through nodes of Ranvier. Myelinated neurons have faster conduction times as depolarization only occurs in nodes of Ranvier. |
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How do animals detect intensity of an impulse if once threshold is reached, speed of impulse is the same? |
The more intense the stimuli= the more frequent the impulses is. Brain detects as intensity Different neurons have different thresholds, so what might cause one to reach action potential, might not do the same for the next neuron |
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What is the synapse? |
Where the axon of one neuron meets the dendrites of another neuron/effector. |
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What is the presynaptic neuron? |
The neuron that is releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse. |
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What is the postsynaptic neuron? |
The neuron that is receiving the neurotransmitters |
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How do NTs get across the synapse? |
They diffuse. This is a slow process |
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Can dendrites release NT? |
No |
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Is it faster to have more or less neurons in a sequence? |
Less. The more neurons there are, the more synapses there are, which means more time that NTs have to diffuse across the synaptic cleft. |
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Difference between synaptic knob and cleft? |
Knob: on the end of axon terminal, what releases the NTs. Cleft: the space between the two neurons. What the NTs diffuse across. |
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What are the 4 steps of a synapse? |
¹. Nerve impulse reaches axon terminal ². Nerve impulse causes synaptic vesicles to move to the cell membrane + fuse with it. (Exocytosis) ³. NT released into synaptic cleft and diffuses across to receptors in dendrites of postsynaptic neuron ⁴. NT binds to receptors and initiate nerve impulse/action potential by opening sodium channels. |
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What is summation? |
When two or more neurons must fire in order to depolarize the same postsynaptic neuron. |
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What is a neuromuscular junction? |
Modified synapse where a motor neuron meets a muscle cell. ACETYLCHOLINE ACTIVATES MUSCLE CELLS BY OPENING NA+ GATES |
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What do excitatory drugs do? |
Increases synaptic transmission |
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How do excitatory drugs increase synaptic transmission? |
-promotes release of NT into synaptic cleft -blocks the enzyme breakdown of NT -blocks transporter proteins -binds to receptors -causes leakage of NT -prevent release of inhibitor |
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What do inhibitory drugs do? |
Decreases synaptic transmission |
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How do inhibitory drugs decrease synaptic transmission? |
-prevent release of NT into synaptic cleft -binds to receptors, preventing action of NT |
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What is the role of the spinal cord? |
Carries info to and from brain Primary reflex center |
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What protects the spinal cord? |
Cerebrospinal fluid Meninges Spinal column |
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THE OUTER REGION OF THE SPINAL CORD IS GREY MATTER |
OK |
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Two tracts of spinal nerves |
Dorsal roots Ventral roots |
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What do dorsal roots do? |
Contains sensory neurons. Ganglion brings sensory info into spinal cord (from back) |
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What do ventral roots do? |
Contains motor neurons and carries motor neural impulses out of the spinal cord (from front) |
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What is the role of the brain |
Recieve sensory information, evaluates and initiates responses in body |
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What protects the brain? |
Skull Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid in subarachnoid space |
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What are meninges? |
Three layers of tough elastic tissue. |
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What is meningitis? |
Bacterial/viral infection of the meninges |
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What does the cerebrospinal fluid do? |
Shock absorber Transports hormones, nutrients, wastes, white blood cells across blood-brain barrier |
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What is a spinal tap? |
Extraction of cerebrospinal fluid from the spine to detect meningitis or polio. |
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What is a spinal tap? |
Extraction of cerebrospinal fluid from the spine to detect meningitis or polio. |
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What are the three regions of the brain? |
Hindbrain Midbrain Forebrain |
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What are the parts of the hindbrain? |
Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata |
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What are the parts of the midbrain? |
Literally just the ******* midbrain |
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What are the parts of the forebrain? |
Cerebrum Corpus callosum Thalamus Hypothalamus Pituitary gland |
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What is the cerebellum in charge of? |
Unconscious coordination of posture, reflexes and body movements, as well as fine, voluntary movements and motor skills |
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What does the medulla oblongata control? |
Automatic, involuntary responses |
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What does the pons do? |
Relays info between neurons in the left and right sides of the cerebellum, cerebrum, and the rest of the brain. |
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What does the midbrain do? |
Relays visual and auditory info between areas of hindbrain and forebrain. Important role in eye movemebt and control of skeletal muscles. |
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What does the thalamus do? |
Connections between various parts of brain, mainly between forebrain and hindbrain and between areas of the sensory system (not smell) and cerebellum. |
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What is the nickname for the thalamus? |
The great relay station of the brain |
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What does the hypothalamus do? |
Helps regulate body's internal environment and certain aspects of behavior. -controls blood pressure, HR, body temp, basic drives, and emotions. MAJOR LINK BETWEEN NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS |
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What does the cerebrum do? |
Contains centers for intellect, memory, consciousness, and language. Interprets and controls response to sensory information. |
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What is the largest part of the brain? |
Cerebrum. Accounts for more than 4/5 of the brain's total weight. |
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How much oxygen does the brain use? |
At least 20% of the body's oxygen and energy supplies |
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What is a stroke? |
When arteries that supply the brain with blood rupture |
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What is the cerebral cortex? |
Thin outer covering of grey matter in Cerberus. Seriously convoluted. |
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What is the role of the cerebral cortex? |
Responsible for language, memory, personality, vision, conscious thought, and all other activities that are associated with thinking and feeling. |
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What is the corpus callosum and what does it do? |
White matter that links the left and right hemisphere. Relays messages from one side of the brain to tge other. |
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What is the left side of the brain responsible for? |
Segmental, logical, sequential thinking. MATH. Controls actions of right side of body |
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What is the right side of the brain responsible for? |
Intuitive, holistic thinking. Visual spacial skills. Artistic abilities. Controls left muscles. |
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What are the 4 pairs of lobes in the cerebrum? |
Occipital lobes Temporal lobes Parietal lobes Frontal lobes |
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What are the occipital lobes responsible for? |
They recieve and analyze visual information |
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What is the role of the temporal lobes |
Share in processing of visual information, but the main function is auditory reception. Balance, face recognition |
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What is the job of the parietal lobes? |
Recieve and process sensory info from skin, process info about body position |
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What is the role of the frontal lobes? |
They're at the front of the cerebrum. Associate with conscious thought, intelligence, memory, and personality. Controls voluntary muscle movements |
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What js the nickname of the frontal lobe? |
Motor cortex |
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What is epilepsy? |
Uncontrollable seizures, usually in response to flashing lights. |
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What is a treatment for epilepsy? |
Corpus callosum can be cut to reduce seizures |
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What is the left temporal lobe called? |
Wernicke's area. In charge of words making sense |
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What is the left side of the frontal lobes called? |
Broca's area, in charge of turning thoughts into speech |
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What is a PET |
Positron emission tomography. Based on the fact that some areas of the brain have higher energy demand. Person received injection of radioactively labelled glucose, scanner monitors glucose consumption in brain. |
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What can a PET be used to diagnose? |
Alzheimer's or stroke |
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What is MRI |
Magnetic resonance imaging. Can produce very clear and detailed images of brain structure. Massive magnet surrounds head and changes in direction cause hydrogen atoms in the brain to emit radio signals. |
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What can an MRI be used for? |
Used to find tumors or soft tissue damage |
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What is a CT scan? |
Computerized tomography. Combines a series of x-ray images taken from different angles and uses computer processing to create cross sectional images. Provides more detailed info than a regular x-ray can. 3-D IMAGE |
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What is an EEG? |
Electroencephalogram. A test used to detect abnormalities related to electrical activity of the brain. Tracks and records brain wave patterns. Electrodes are placed on scalp and send signals to computers to record the results |
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What controls the autonomic nervous system? |
Medulla and hypothalamus |
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What happens in the sympathetic nervous system? |
-longer post ganglionic neurons -preganglionic releases acetylcholine -preganglionic releases norepinephrine |
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What happens in the parasympathetic system? |
Longer preganglionic neuron Preganglionic releases acetylcholine |
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What are sensory receptors? |
The nerve endings and cells that detect sensory information. |
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What is sensation? |
Occurs when neural impulses arrive at the cerebral cortex. Can occur in absence of stimulation |
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What is perception? |
Results from how the cerebral cortex interprets the meaning of the sensory information |
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What is sensory adaption? |
Sometimes the brain filters out unnecessary or redundant information |
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What are photoreceptors? |
These absorb light and allow us to sense different levels of lights and colours. |
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What are chemoreceptors? |
Cells that are stimulates by certain chemicals. Tongue has taste buds. Nose has olfactory cells. |
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What are osmoreceptors? |
Cells in hypothalamus that detect h2o. Blood pH receptors in carotoid/aorta |
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What are mechanoreceptors? |
Cells that respond to mechanical forces from some form of pressure. Ex: hair cells in ears |
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What are proprioceptors? |
Cells in and near muscles that provide information about body position |
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What are thermoreceptors? |
Receptors that detect heat and cold from changes of radiant energy in skin |
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How many layers of the eye are there and what are they? |
3. External: sclera Intermediate: choroid Internal: retina |
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