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101 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are ways of knowing? |
- experiments, observations, being told (taught), beliefs, instinct |
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What is science? |
- Science is a process of how we know things |
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who is Sir Francis Bacon and what did he stress? |
- primary inventor of science - stressed induction (observation and experimentation) |
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what is deduction? |
- general to specific |
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what is induction? |
- specific to general |
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There is no ultimate proof in what? |
- science |
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What is a null hypothesis? |
- there is no difference between the observed and expected |
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what is Justificationism? |
- philosophy that we find agreement between induced and deduced |
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Why can't we prove anything in science? |
- no way to get all of the info in the world/uni - always a chance that we are wrong |
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what is falsificationism? |
- can't prove but can disapprove |
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when was DNA discovered? |
- 1869 but Friedrich Misher, who extracted it from the nucleus |
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who described the chromosome? |
- Walther Flemming in 1882 |
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What did Griffith do? |
- in 1928, came up with the transforming principle by using rough and smooth bacteria - when put r strain into mouse = lived, when put s-strain=died, s strain heat killed = lived, mixed r strain and heat kill s strain and mouse died - r strain must be picking some up from s that kills |
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what is the transforming principle? |
- the transforming principle is that they knew there was something that could cause bacteria to transform from one type to another |
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What is the Hammerling's Graft experiment? |
- took 2 algae, grafted them together |
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What was the purpose of Briggs-King nuclear transplant experiment? |
- wanted to see if the nucleus from any cell could supply the info on the development on the phenotype
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What was the Hershey-Chase experiment and what were the results? |
- labelled DNA and protein around where the DNA is found, and then asked the question 'what is injected into the bacteria? - the DNA was injected which is clear evidence that the genetic info is found within the DNA in organisms |
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what year did Darwin explain that "characteristics of parents are passed onto young"? |
- 1857 |
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what happened in 1869? |
- Isolated "nuclein", DNA with associated proteins, from cell nuclei |
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In 1882, what did Walther Flemming do? |
- described chromosomes |
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when did Griffith's transforming principle come to play? |
- 1928 |
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what experiment took place in the 1930's? |
- Hammering's algae graft experiment |
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the Hersey-Chase experiment took place in what year? |
- 1952 |
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what else took place in 1952? |
- Briggs and King nuclear transplant experiment |
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By mass, what are chromosomes made of? |
- half protein, half DNA |
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What are the subunits of protein? |
- Amino Acids |
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how many subunits are there? |
- 20 |
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what determines biological function? |
- protein structure |
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who discovered the basic structure of DNA and RNA? What year? |
- Levene, 1920's |
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DNA has .... |
- deoxyribose (lost an oxygen) - and thymine |
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RNA has... |
- ribose - and uracil |
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What is attached to the #1 Carbon? #3? #5? |
- base, OH, phosphate (respectively) |
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which direction does DNA replicate? |
- 5' to 3' |
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define Levene's Tetranucleotide theory |
- he suggested that DNA plays a role as a scaffolding, a repeating sequence of 4 bases |
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In 1944, what was Avery, Macleod, and McCarty assumption? What did they do? |
- assumed protein was the genetic material, if "transforming principle" treated chemically to remove protein, it should lose its power - removed all but 0.02% and it did not lose its power, DNA still function, 'transforming principle' still able to convert rough bacteria to smooth bacteria |
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___ bases do not occur in ______ proportions, vary by _______ |
- 4 bases do not occur in equal proportions, vary by species |
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What is chargaff's rule? |
- A=T, C=G, and equal proportions of purines (A & G) and Pyrimidine (C & T) |
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What did Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin of the UK do to figure out the structure of DNA? |
- isolated DNA fibres and took detailed x-ray photographs |
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In America, Linus Pauling used what techniques to figure out the structure of DNA? |
- modeling and x-rays |
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(UK) James Watson and Francis Crick used ______ to show the structure of DNA. |
- modeling |
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DNA is a _________ ? |
- double helix |
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"Two, intertwined complementary chains held together by hydrogen bonds" .. explains what? |
- Double Helix Model |
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Two DNA strands have what? |
- "antiparallel configuration" |
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DNA replication is best described by the semiconservative model? (true/false)
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- TRUE |
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What is meant by "DNA strands are complementary" ? |
- one strand determines the other strand |
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What is helicase? |
- enzyme that unwinds and separates the DNA strand (breaks the hydrogen bond) |
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What is Single Strand binding protein? |
- (SSBS) keeps the strands separated |
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What is gyrase? |
- relieves all tension from the unwinding of the double helix |
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what does DNA polymerase 3 do? |
- moves along the strand and the proper base comes to pair |
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what does Polymerase 1 do? |
- replaces the primers |
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what does Ligase do? |
- comes and joins the fragments (okazaki fragments) |
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There are many origins of replication (truth/false) |
- true, replication starts at many places |
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what is the advantage of multiple origins of replication? |
- fast (humans 8 hours, would take 100 times longer) |
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In 1902, Garrod explained what? |
- certain diseases acted like Mendelian traits, conclusion: reflect enzyme deficiencies, concluded that some of the diseases we have are enzyme deficiencies |
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in 1941, Beadle and Tatum did what? |
- took fungus, put in minimal medium (survived); meaning body can produce the needed stuff, exposed to X-ray - tested in minimal medium, could not survive - individual would grow in one tube but not another dude containing diff things - genes are responsible for producing specific enzymes - one gene one enzyme hypothesis |
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Who determined the complete amino acid make up for insulin? |
- Sanger in 1953 |
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Even though proteins have a complex structure, they are what? |
- linear sequences of amino acids - this was the first evidence that proteins consists of specific sequences of amino acids - maybe DNA resides in a sequence of acids (translates to sequence of amino acids) |
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In 1956, Ingram discovered what? This is evidence of what? |
- A single amino acid substitution causes sickle cell anemia - evidence that sequence of amino acids maybe relate to DNA of organism - Sequence of bases in DNA somehow translate to sequence of protein amino acids |
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What is the central dogma of gene expression (or molecular biology)? |
- information passes from the genes (DNA) via an RNA copy of the gene to amino acids in proteins |
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define Retroviruses |
- any of a group of RNA viruses that insert a DNA copy of their genome into the host cell in order to replicate |
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what is the molecular definition of a gene? |
- a gene is an organized unit of DNA sequences that enables a segment of DNA to be transcribed in RNA, or is itself transcribed into RNA and ultimately results in the formation of functional products |
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Who elucidated the genetic code in 1961? |
- Crick |
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how many bases constitutes a codon? |
- 3 |
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which codon is a start codon? |
- AUG |
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Which codons are stop codons? |
- UAA, UGA, UAG |
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What makes an exact duplicate, transcription vs translation? |
- transcription, translation translates it |
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define messenger RNA |
- the form of RNA in which genetic information transcribed from DNA as a sequence of bases is transferred to a ribosome. |
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define transfer RNA |
- transport amino acids for polypeptide assembly |
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define ribosomal RNA |
- made of several RNA molecules & over 50 proteins. Provides the site where polypeptides are assembled |
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define Promotor |
- short sequence on DNA template strand where RNA polymerase binds. |
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define initiation |
- binding by RNA polymerase and starts unwinding DNA (17 base pairs long) |
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define Elongation |
- 50 nucleotides added per second, no proof reading by RNA polymerase, therefore errors may occur - 5' to 3' direction |
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define Termination |
- stop sequence (series of) forms a GC hairpin, slows down transcription |
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mRNA needs to travel where after transcription? |
- out into the cytoplasm |
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Modifications are made to the mRNA to prevent what? |
- modifications are made to prevent degradation by nucleases and phosphates |
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What type of modifications are made? |
- The terminal 5' end is removed and replaced with an unusual 5'-5' linkage with GTP forming a 5' cap - poly A polymerase adds about 250 A's to 3' end to form a long A tail (poly A tail) |
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how many transfer RNAs are there? |
- 64 |
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What is the difference between a polypeptide and a protein? |
- polypeptide is structural unit, protein is a functional unit made of 1 or more polypeptides |
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RNA is made up of introns and axons, what are introns/exons? |
- introns (in between, non-coding), axons (expressed, coding) |
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what are spliceosomes? |
- spliceosomes are large proteins that splice remove the introns and join the exons together |
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Eukaryote mRNA contrains transcripts of how many genes? Prokaryotes? |
- Eukaryote mRNA contrains transcripts of one gene, prokaryote mRNA contain transcripts of several genes |
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define a "phage" when talking about viruses |
- a virus that injects its DNA into a cell |
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define the Lysogenic cycle |
- phage inserts DNA into cell, DNA moves into nucleus, sits there when cell replicates so does the DNA |
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define the Lytic cycle |
- DNA is outside of that makes more copies of the cell, once have lots of copies of viral cells, virus breaks out of cell |
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what are bacteriophages? |
- viruses that attack bacteria |
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what are Restriction endonucleases? |
- they are the bacteria's immune system - cut up foreign DNA from other organisms or phage |
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Define type 1 restriction endonucleases |
- cuts DNA in half (not that useful) |
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Define type 2 restriction endonucleases |
- cuts leaving sticky ends (can form hydrogen bonded base pairs with complementary sticky ends on any other DNA molecules cut with the same enzyme |
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define palindromes |
- A palindromic sequence is a nucleic acid sequence on double-stranded DNA or RNA wherein reading 5' (five-prime) to 3' (three prime) forward on one strand matches the sequence reading backward 5' to 3' on the complementary strand with which it forms a double helix.
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Bacteria DNA is circular (true/false) |
- TRUE |
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define plasmids |
- small circular strands of DNA that by a process of conjugation can pass from one bacterium to another |
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what does a lac Z gene do? |
- causes a bacteria colony to turn a certain color |
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who were the first people to successfully cut out a piece of DNA and insert it into a plasmid? |
- Cohen and Boyer |
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what did Cohen and Boyer discover? |
- they could cut a section of a plasmid out and produce a smaller plasmid - they could cut a section of DNA out of a from and insert it into the new smaller plasmid |
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define Southern blotting
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- using an amplified gene as a probe to identify the same or a similar gene in another sample |
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define Northern Blotting |
- used to identify specific RNA molecules - used to determine if transcription of a particular gene is transcribed in a particular cell type - technique similar to southern blotting |
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define Western blotting |
- used to detect specific proteins - use antibody as a probe (antibodies binds to specific sites on protein molecules) - technique similar to southern blotting |
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define microsatellites |
- regions of repeat sequences - repeat regions are highly variable and can be used to distinguish between sub populations |
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define DNA fingerprinting |
- makes use of micro satellites called mini satellites containing tandem repeats |
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what is a gene gun? |
- a method of getting pieces of DNA into animal cells - shoots genes into cells by coating gold particles with lots of pieces of short DNA and firing it into a cell at very high speeds |
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what are some biotech uses? |
- medicine (stem cell, insulin, gene therapy, genetic screening) - agirculture(herbicide resistant plants, resistant to freezing, shipping .. aka GMO) - biological control (cotton and BT gene) - bioremediation (bacteria engineered to eat toxic substances) |
