Bio Final

Front 1

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Back 1

Prokaryotic have no nucleus (DNA is unbound in the nucleiod) and no membrane bound organelles

Front 2

Common features of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells

Back 2

both have cytoplasm, chromosomes made of DNA, ribosomes, and plasma membranes

Front 3

What does a plant cell have that animal cells do not?

Back 3

vacuole, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and cell walls

Front 4

The nucleus:

Describe and name its functions

Back 4

"Info Central" of the cell

- regulates all cell activity

- contains DNA (chromatin)

- enclosed in nuclear envelope (double membrane)

- has pores, releasing proteins and regulating what enters and exits

Front 5

Ribosomes:

Describe and name their functions

Back 5

"Protein Factories"

- made of rRNA and proteins

- carry out protein synthesis in 2 locations:

- in the cytosol (free ribosomes)

- outside of ER/nuclear envelope (bound)

Front 6

What organelles does the Endomembrane System consist of?

Back 6

the nuclear envelope, golgi, ER, vacuoles, lysosomes, and plasma membrane

Front 7

Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Describe and name its functions

Back 7

"Membrane Factory"

- accounts for more than half the total membrane (continuous with nuclear envelope)

Smooth ER:

- synthesizes lipids

Rough ER:

- studded with ribosomes which:

- synthesize proteins that enter ER

Front 8

Golgi Apparatus:

Describe and name its functions

Back 8

"Shipping and Receiving Center"

- sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

- modifies ER products

- manufactures macromolecules

Front 9

Lysosomes:

Describe and name their functions

Back 9

"Digestive Compartments"

- sac of hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules

- can recycle the cell's own organelles/macromolecules

Front 10

Phagocytosis

Back 10

when lysosomes fuse with food vacuoles to digest molecules

Front 11

Autophagy

Back 11

an intermolecular degradation system where

lysosomes degrade and recycle the cell's own organelles and macromolecules.

Front 12

Vacuole:

Describe and name its functions

Back 12

"Diverse Maintenance Compartments"

- large vesicles derived from the ER and golgi

- selective in transporting solutes

ex. pumping out excess water

Front 13

Peroxisomes:

Describe and name their functions

Back 13

"Oxidation"

- specialized metabolic compartments

- produce hydrogen peroxide and

convert it to water

- breaks down molecules

Front 14

Mitochondrion:

Describe and name its functions

Back 14

- the site of cellular respiration

- uses O2, sugars, and fats to make ATP

- 2 compartments:

• intermembrane space

• mitochondria matrix

Front 15

Chlorplasts:

Describe and name their functions

Back 15

- the site of photosynthesis

- contain cholorphyll and enzymes

• reason for green color in leaves

- creates sugars by light energy

- contains thylakoids, granum, and stroma

Front 16

Similarities between

Chloroplasts and Mitochondria

Back 16

Both:

- enveloped by double membranes

- contain free ribosomes

- grow and divide fairly independently

Front 17

What is the Endosymbointic Theory?

Back 17

- explains the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotes stating that several key organelles of eukaryotes originated as symbiosis between separate single-celled organisms.

- the similarities between chloroplasts and mitochondria lead to this theory

Front 18

Cytoskeleton:

Describe and name its functions

Back 18

"Support and Motility"

- supports cell's shape

- interacts with motor proteins for motility

Front 19

What are the 3 components of the cytoskeleton in thickest to thinnest order?

Back 19

1. Microtubules (25nm)

2. Intermediate Filaments (8-12nm)

3. Microfilaments (7nm)

Front 20

Microtubules:

Describe and name their functions

Back 20

- thickest, 25nm

- hollow tubes of α and β tubulin

- have polarity in animal cells

~ dynein moves cargo to minus end

~ kinesin moves cargo to plus end

- provides motility:

• cell: flagella, cilla

• movement of chromosomes and organelles

Front 21

Intermediate Filaments:

Describe and name their functions

Back 21

- 8-12nm

- supercoiled keratin proteins

- maintains the cells shape

- anchorage for organelles

Front 22

Microfilaments:

Describe and name their functions

Back 22

- 7nm

- two intertwined strands of actin proteins

- maintains cell's shape

- bears tension, muscle contractions

- responsible for cell cleavage

Front 23

What is Avagadro's #?

Back 23

6.02 x 10^23

Front 24

what is an acid?

Back 24

- an H+ donor

- < pH 7

[H3O+][-OH] = 10^-14

pH = -log[H+]

[H+] = 10^-pH

Front 25

what is a base?

Back 25

- and H+ acceptor or an OH- donor

- reduces H+ of a solution

- > pH 7

[H3O+][-OH] = 10^-14

pH = -log[H+]

[H+] = 10^-pH

Front 26

what does hydrophobic mean?

Back 26

- it is non-polar

- doesn't react with water

Front 27

what does hydrophilic mean?

Back 27

- adheres to water

- polar

Front 28

What are the 3 isomers?

Back 28

1. Structural Isomers: diff. covalent arrangements

2. Cis-trans isomers: same covalent bonds, diff. in spatial arrangements

3. Entantiomers: mirror images of each other

Front 29

What are the 7 functional groups?

Back 29

- hydroxyl

- carbonyl

- carboxyl

- amino

- sulfhydryl

- phosphate

- methyl

Front 30

What functional groups are charged?

Back 30

- Carboxyl

- Amino

- Phosphate

Front 31

What functional groups are hydrophilic?

Back 31

- Hydroxyl

- Carbonyl

- Carboxyl

- Amino

- Phosphate

Front 32

What functional groups are hydrophobic?

Back 32

- Methyl

- Sulfhydryl

Front 33

Hyrdoxyl Group

Back 33

- alcohols

- forms hydrogen bonds w/ water

- helps dissolve organic compounds like sugar

Front 34

Carbonyl Group

Back 34

- Ketones (only when with a carbon skeleton)

- Aldehydes (only if at the end of carbon skeleton)

Front 35

Carboxyl Group

Back 35

- Carboxyl acids (organic acids)

- acts as an acid, donating H+

- found in ionized form in cells as

carboxylate ion (-1)

Front 36

Amino Group

Back 36

- Amines

- acts as a base, accepting H+'s

- found in cells in ionized form (+1)

Front 37

Phosphate Group

Back 37

- organic phosphates

- contribute negative charge to part of molecule it's on

- have potential to react w/ water, releasing energy

Front 38

Methyl Group

Back 38

- Methylated compounds

- affects expression of genes

- arrangement in male/female sex hormones affects their shape/funct.

Front 39

Sulfhydryl Group

Back 39

- Thiols

- can react with each other to for covalent bonds (cross-linking)

-helps stabilize proteins

Front 40

What happens when a dehydration reaction occurs?

Back 40

- a polymer is synthesized

- 2 monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule

Front 41

What happens when a hydrolosis occurs?

Back 41

- a polymer is broken down

- a water molecule is aded, breaking a bond

Front 42

What is a monosaccharide?

Back 42

- a single sugar

- usually multiples of CH2O

- classified by the location of the carbonyl group

Front 43

What are the 2 monosaccharides?

Back 43

- Aldose (Aldehyde)

- Ketose (ketone)

Front 44

What are polysaccharides and their roles?

Back 44

- polymers of sugars

- have storage and structural roles

- STORAGE:

~ starch in plants

~ glycogen in liver/muscle cells

- STRUCTURAL:

~ cellulose, major component of cell walls

(polymer of glucose)

Front 45

What are disaccharides?

Back 45

- formed when dehydration joins 2 monosaccharides

( glucose + galactose = lactose )

( glucose + fructose = sucrose )

Front 46

What is the role of an Ester Linkage?

Back 46

- links 3 fatty acids and glycerol to make trygliceride

Front 47

What is an example of a saturated fatty acid and its characteristics?

Back 47

- has the max # of H possible

- has no double bonds

- is solid at room temp.

ex. butter

Front 48

What is an example of an unsaturated fatty acid and its characteristics?

Back 48

- has one or moor double bonds

- liquidy

ex. olive oil

Front 49

what is a phospholipid and its characteristics?

Back 49

- two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol

- has a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

- creates a bilayer when in water (cell membrane)

Front 50

what are the 4 levels of a protein's structure?

Back 50

- Primary

- Secondary:

results from H bonds, backbone interaction

- Tertiary: R-group interactions, disulfide bridges support structure

- Quatenary: interactions of 2 or more polypeptides

Front 51

Collagen

Back 51

- most abundant protein, holding us togethe

- 2 polypeptides coiled like rope

Front 52

Hemoglobin

Back 52

- 4 polypeptides

- 2 alpha, 2 beta chains

Front 53

What nucleic acids do DNA and RNA each have?

Back 53

DNA:

cytosine, thymine, guanine, and adenine

C--->G

A--->T

RNA:

cytosine, uracil, guanine, and adenine

C---->G

A---->U

Front 54

Name 3 pyrimidines

Back 54

cytosine, thymine, and uracil

Front 55

Name 2 purines

Back 55

adenine and guanine

Front 56

what does amphipathic mean?

Back 56

a molecule has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

Front 57

what are the characteristics of the fluid mosaic model?

Back 57

a cell's membrane is a fluid structure with a mosaic of various proteins

Front 58

what is cholesterol's role in a cell's membrane?

Back 58

is a membrane fluidity "buffer"

it either maintains or prevents fluidity depending on the temp.

Front 59

Peripheral Proteins

Back 59

bound to surface or membrane inside cell

horizontal looking like the way you see your peripherals

Front 60

Integral Protein

Back 60

penetrates to the hydrophobic core

integrated into bilayer

Front 61

Membrane Protein Functions

Back 61

- transportation

- enzymatic activity

- signal transduction

- cell-cell recognition

-intercellular joining

-attachment to cytoskeleton

Front 62

two transport proteins

Back 62

- channel proteins

• move certain molecules through a hydrophilic channel

- carrier proteins

• bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane

Front 63

passive transport

Back 63

requires no energy to diffuse a substance across a membrane

ex. diffusion

Front 64

active transport

Back 64

requires energy

ex. Sodium Potassium Pump, H+ against concentration gradient

Front 65

concentration gradient

Back 65

region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases

Front 66

Osmosis

Back 66

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

low ----> high concentration

Front 67

Isotonic, Hypotonic, Hypertonic

Back 67

Iso - at an equilibrium

Hypo - inside > outside, bloated

Hyper - inside < outside, shriveled up

Front 68

Facilitated diffusion

Back 68

transport proteins that speed the passive movement

Front 69

Laws of Thermodynamics

Back 69

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed.

Every energy transformation increase entropy.hO

Front 70

Redox Reactions

Back 70

Oxidation

Is

Losing

Reduction

Is

Gaining

Front 71

steps of Cellular Respiration

Back 71

-Glycolosis

- Citric Acid Cycle

- Oxidative Phosphorylation

- Electron Transport Chain

- Chemiosmosis

Front 72

Glycolosis

Back 72

- happens in cytosol of mitochondria

- doesn't require O2

- NAD+ is oxidizing agent

- breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvates

- energy investment phase: 2 ATP used

- energy payoff phase: 4 ATPs formed

- NET:

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

Front 73

Citric Acid Cycle

Back 73

- occurs in the matrix of the cell

- completes the break down of glucose

- happens in presence of O2

- 2 pyruvate converted to 2 acetyl CoA

- NET per turn: 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2

- NET outcome:

2 ATP, 8 NADH,

6 CO2, 2 FADH2

Front 74

Oxidative Phosphorylation:

Electron Transport

Back 74

- powers ATP synthesis

- doesn't generate ATP directly

- won't function w/o O2

- NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to chain

- electron transfer causes protein complexes to pump H+ into intermembrane space

Front 75

Oxidative Phosphorylation:

Chemiosmosis

Back 75

- "Energy Coupling Mechanism"

- the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work

- creates proton gradient

- H+ is moved back across the membrane (ATP synthase)

- the exergonic flow of H+ is used to drive phosphorylation of ATP

Front 76

two types of Fermentation

Back 76

alcohol fermentation:

pyruvate converted to ethanol, releasing CO2

lactic acid fermentation:

pyruvate reduced to NADH with lactate as end product

Front 77

Fermentation vs Cellular Respiration

Back 77

O2 requirements

Fermentation: No

Respiration: Yes

different electron acceptors

Fermentation: pryuvate (2 ATP)

Respiration: O2 (32 ATP)

Front 78

Photosynthesis

Back 78

- converts solar energy to chemical energy

- outcomes: sugar, O2, and water

- chloroplasts split H2O, releasing O2

- has 2 stages:

Light reactions: PS II and PS I

Non-light reactions: Calvin Cycle

Front 79

Photosystem II and I

Back 79

PS II functions first

- absorbs wl 680 nm

- reaction center: P680

PS I

- absorbs wl 700 nm

- reaction center: P700

• linear electron flow produces ATP and NADPH

• electrons of NADPH available for Calvin Cycle

Front 80

chemiosmosis in

cholorplasts vs mitochondria

Back 80

- both generate ATP but use different energy sources

Mitochondria

- pumps protons to intermembrane space driving ATP synthesis

- pumped back into matrix

Chloroplasts

- pumps protons to thylakoid space

- drives synthesis

- pumped back into stroma

Front 81

Calvin Cycle

Back 81

- use chem. energy to reduce CO2 to sugar

- C enters as 3CO2, leaves as sugar (G3P)

3 phases:

1. Carbon fixation (catalyzed (rubisco))

2. Reduction

3. Regeneration of CO2 acceptor (RuBP)

1 G3P = 3 cycle runs

Front 82

Meiosis

Back 82

result in 4 daughter cells each with only half the chromosomes of parent cell

Front 83

Meiosis I

Back 83

- homologs pair up and split (2 haploid daughter cells)

Prophase I

- duplicated homologs pair and exchange segments (crossing-over)

Metaphase I

- chromosomes line up by homolog pairs

Anaphase I

- each pair of homologs separates

Telephase I and ctyokinesis

- 2 haploid cells form, both have 2 sister chromatids

Front 84

Meiosis II

Back 84

(similar to mitosis)

Prophase II

- spindle apparatus form

Metaphase II

- sister chromatids lined at metaphase plate

- not identical due to cross-over

Anaphase II

- chromatids separate

- two newly individual chromosomes

Telephase II and ctyokinesis

- nuclei form, cytoplasm separates

- 4 daughter cells

Front 85

Cell Cycle

Back 85

Interphase: cell growth and copying in prep. for cell division

G1 - (2n) Cells increase in size

S - (4n) DNA replication occurs

G2 - (4n)

Mitososis: (2n and 2n) division into two daughter cells

Front 86

Mitosis

Back 86

Prophase

- spindles form, chromatids dense

Prometaphase

- spindles attiMach

Metaphase

- sister chromatids line at metaphase plate

Anaphase

- chromosomes split

Telophase and Cytokinesis

- cleavage furrow

Front 87

Mitosis vs Meiosis

Back 87

mitosis = identical to parent cells

meiosis = differ from parent cells

Front 88

Mendel and genetics

Back 88

Garden pea experiment

Front 89

The law of segregation

Back 89

anaphase I

Front 90

the law of independent assortment

Back 90

metaphase I

Front 91

Griffith

Back 91

bacteria and mice

Front 92

Avery, Macleod, and Maccarthy

Back 92

Griffith's bacteria

Front 93

Chargaff

Back 93

analyzed DNA compostion

Front 94

Hershey and Chase

Back 94

viruses infecting bacteria (phages)

radioactive S and P

Front 95

Watson and Crick

Back 95

DNA replication

Front 96

Meselson and Stahl

Back 96

Conservative, dispersive, and semiconservative

Front 97

DNA Replication steps

Back 97

unwinding

initiation

elongation

termination

Front 98

Central Dogma

Back 98

DNA ----> RNA -----> Protein

Front 99

Start codon

Back 99

AUG

Front 100

Stop codons

Back 100

UAA, UAG, UGA