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260 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Lives for one growing season
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Annual
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Lives season after season
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Perennial
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The part of t he plant body which typically grows above ground
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Shoot System
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Leaves Stems and Flowers are included in this system
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Shoot System
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Used in photosynthesis
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Leaves
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Used in Support
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Stems
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Used in Reproduction
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Flowers
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The part of the plant body which typically grows below ground
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Root System
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Anchorage, Absorption of water and minerals and storage are done in this system
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Root System
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Growth which occurs in the first season
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Primary 1'
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Growth which occurs beyond the first season
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Secondary 2'
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2 Major plant Tissues
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Meristematic and Permanent
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These are embryonic tissues and they divide mitotically. In general, these cells are small, thin walled, they have small central vacuoles and have a high metabolic rate. Unlike animals, adult plants retain areas which are perpetually embryonic.
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Meristematic
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Found At the tips of the plant stems and roots. Coned-shaped group of cells. Increase length of roots or stems by adding new cells at the end.
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Apical Meristem
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Apical Meristems exhibit ____ growth.
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Primary Growth
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Apical Merristem examples
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Root apical meristem, shoot apical meristem
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Located near the periphery of adult stems and roots. Sheets of cells usually forming cylinders. Increases the width of the stems and roots.
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Lateral Meristems
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Lateral Meristems exhibit _____ growth.
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Secondary Growth
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Originates from the apical meristems. These cells continue to divide but from three cylinders
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Primary Meristems
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Protoderm, Ground Tissue and Procambium make up this tissue.
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Primary Meristem
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Protoderm becomes...
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Epidermis
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Procambium forms... (2)
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Vascular Cambium and Vascular Tissue
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These tissues are mature, specialized tissues of the adult plant body. Their structure varies considerably according to the function they preform. Most don't undergo cell division. These are the most external tissues of the plant body.
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Permanent Tissue
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Permanent Tissues consist of 2 types.
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Epidermis and Periderm
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Primary tissue. Living composed of only one cell layer with thick cell walls and large central vacuoles.
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Epidermis
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Layer of wax on external surface of epidermis to retard loss of water and for protection from infection.
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Cutin
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Specialized Structures of the Epidermis.
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Stomata, Root Hairs, Trichomes
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Pores for gas exchange, mostly in leaves. Composed of 2 guard cells which flex in the day to form an open pore and relax at night closing the pore.
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Stomata
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Found in root epidermis. Function for absorption of water and minerals from the soil. Composed of one cell. Root hair cells are root epidermal cells which have a long extension.
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Root Hairs
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Found in the shoot system and are multicellular hairs formed by epidermal cells attached on end. Serve a variety of functions such as gas exchange, secreting scents, protection.
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Trichomes
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Secondary Tissue, found in roots and stems after their first growing season. Forms at the end of 1st growing season and compose of two layers.
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Periderm
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Periderm composed of two tissue layers.
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Cork and Cork Cambium
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Varied tissues found throughout the adult plant body and performs functions such as photosynthesis, storage, protection and support.
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Ground Tissues
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Living, thin walled cells with a large central vacuole. Cells usually large resulting in the tissue having large intercellular spaces. Potentially meristematic. These are the only cells of the permanent tissue which can revert and become meristematic. Most of this tissue is for storage containing starch (amyloplastids), sugars or oils (in the storage vacuoles).
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Parenchyma
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Long, living cells with irregularly thick cell walls. Cell wall has corners allowing cells to be closley packed together. Provides support for young stem and and leaves and protects vital tissues in primary organs below epidermis and around the leaf veins.
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Collenchyma
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Dead cells with very thick walls containing Lignin. Used for Support and is made of two types.
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Schlerenchyma
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A hard and impervious substance.
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Lignin
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Two types of Schlerenchyma
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Fibers and Sclereids
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Long thread-like with tapered ends.
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Fibers
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Short and irregularly shape. Found in nut shells, seed coats and some fruits.
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Sclereids
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This tissue forms the vessel of the plants. They are more complex than other tissues because they include cells found in ground tissues. They do not branch, they form a continuous pathway from one part of the body to another and they are open at both ends.
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Vascular Tissue
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The two types of Vascular Tissue
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Xylem and Phloem
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Conducts water and minerals in an upward direction only. Once absorbed by the root hair cells water and minerals diffuse through root tissue to the xylem vessels and are conducted to individual parts of the cell body. Each group of cells has one or few xylem vessel ending nearby supplying them with water and minerals.
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Xylem
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A type of Xylem pathway constructed by xylem elements (dead cells) attached end to end. Each xylem element has a very thick, lignified cell wall with irregular thickenings (provide greater flexibility than solid, thick walls). The ends of the xylem elements are partially perforated facilitating movement of xylem sap from one element to the next. These pathways are wider than tracheids.
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Xylem Vessel
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Another type of Xylem vessel made up of dead cells with thick lignified walls but with CLOSED, tapered ends that overlap with each other. Each of these is perforated allowing for materials to pass from one of these to another.
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Tracheid
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Unlike Animals, plants do not have a heart to do pump fluid through their vessels. in Xylem there are two mechanisms to meet this requirement that are grouped.
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Xylem Flow
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The two types of Xylem Flow are these.
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Root Pressure and Mass Flow Hypothesis
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Pressure created by the root hair cells absorbing soil water.
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Root Pressure
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Movement of the Xylem sap is by this.
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Negative Pressure
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This is believed to be the mechanism which mostly drives the column of water up each vessel (and tracheid). This mechanism does not rely on energy of the plant, instead it is solar powered.
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Mass Flow Hypothesis
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This conducts sugar using sap in an upward or downward direction. Gernally upward in the early spring and downward in the late spring, summer and early fall.
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Phloem
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Three Types of Phloem
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Sieve Tube Elements, Companion Cells, and Phloem Parenchyma
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Elongated cells stacked end to end forming a continuous pathway. These are Annucleated, lack ribosomes and a distinct central vacuole. Cells exhibit pronounced cytoplasmic streaming providing rapid transport of materials through the cells.
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Sieve Tube Elements
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The perforated cell walls at the ends of the Sieve Tube Elements which facilitates the transport of fluid between the cells.
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Sieve Plate
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Thin, elongated, non-conducting, nucleated cells located next to each sieve tube element... 1:1. connected to sieve tube elements with its nucleus and ribosomes. May direct activity of sieve elements. In some plants, these cells in leaves load sugars into the sieve elements via the plasmodesmata.
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Companion Cells
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Large Cells which assist companion cells.
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Phloem Parenchyma
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Phloem transport moves materials by _____ pressure.
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Positive pressure
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The phloem sap is pushed through the sieve tubes and the hypothesis for this is called _____
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Pressure Flow Hypothesis
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Pressure Flow Hypothesis occurs because of this.
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Osmosis
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When sugars move from areas of high pressure to low pressure it is known as this.
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Source to Sink Flow
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Anything that takes up space or has mass or weight
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Matter
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All matter is composed of this and is a substance that cannot be broken down to any other substances.
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Elements
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Total Number of Elements
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103
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Elements found in nature
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92
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Synthetic Elements
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11
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Elements essential to life
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26
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Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen and Carbon make up _% of living matter.
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96%
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This is the fundamental unit of an element. The porperties of this is determined by its structure and made up of subatomic particles.
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Atoms
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In this law: Opposite charges attract. Like charges repel. The force of attraction or repulsion is directly related to the strength of the charges.
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Law of Charges
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The varied distances that electrons are found at.
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Energy Levels
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1st Energy Level holds this many electrons
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Holds a max of 2 electrons
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2nd Energy Level holds this many electrons
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Holds a max of 8 electrons
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3rd Energy Level holds this many electrons
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holds a maximum of 8 or 18 (depending on the size of the atom)
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As electrons move closer towards the nucleus their energy levels ___
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decrease
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The properties and identity of the elements are determined by the structure of its atoms, specifically by the number of protons.
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Atomic Number
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This is equal to the sum of all the masses of all subatomic particles of an atom (protons+neutrons)
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Atomic Mass
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Atoms that have the same atomic number but different atomic masses are these.
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Isotopes
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Disintegrating atoms that release sub-atomic particles and energy.
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Radioactive isotopes
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When atoms undergo changes and their energy levels are not filled to capacity.
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Unstable Atoms
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The few Elements with filled energy levels are ____ and are the most _____
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Noble Elements, Stable Elements
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The gain of electrons by an atom
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Reduction
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The loss of electrons by an atom
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Oxidation
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Charged Atoms
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Ions
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Positive ions
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Cations
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Negative ions
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Anions
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Two or more atoms joined by one or more chemical bonds.
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Molecule
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A substance is composed of molecules having two or more different atoms.
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Compound
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It is composed of two atoms of the same type then it is still an element.
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Elemental Molecule
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The most common representation of molecules which includes symbols of each element in the molecule and the number of atoms.
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Empirical Formula
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Atoms that share electrons bond this way.
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Covalent Bonds
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Each covalent bond is only between two atoms sharing __ electrons
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2 (one from each)
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If there are two pairs of electrons being shared between the same two atoms then _ bars are drawn.
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2
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In general covalent bonds are the ____ stable.
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Most
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Molecules composed of 2 atoms are always _____.
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Linear
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Water has a _ Shape molecule.
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V
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Methane has a _______ shape molecule.
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Tetrahedral
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Covalent bonds in which atoms equally share the pair of electrons are these.
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Non-polar Covalent Bonds
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Having unequal sharing of covalent bonds.
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Polar Covalent Bonds
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Attraction for electrons.
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Affinity
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The charges of atoms joined by polar covalent bonds are small charges, not equal to the charges of cations or anions.
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Delta Charges
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This atom has the lowest affinity for electrons.
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Hydrogen
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C-H bond is this kind of covalent bond.
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Non polar Covalent Bond
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The polar attraction of a H+delta to negative charge is called this.
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Hydrogen (H-bond)
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The earth is covered with _% water.
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80%
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About _% of the contents of the cell and body are water.
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70%
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Each water Molecule has _ of each delta charge.
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two d+ and two d-
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Water can be involved in this many hydrogen bonds.
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Less than 4
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Ice can form this many H-bonds with other water molecules.
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4
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The amount of H-bonds for water has a _____ correlation to temperature.
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Negative
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Vapor has this many H-bonds with water molecules.
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0
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This is the universal solvent.
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Water
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A substance in which another dissolves.
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Solvent
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A substance which dissolves in a solvent.
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Solute
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Water with one or more solutes dissolved in it.
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Solution
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In order for a solvent to dissolve a solute there must be an _____ between the two substances.
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Attraction
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A substance resists change in temperature.
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Thermal Stability
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This measures the expansion or contraction of a metal or a liquid as a result of heat changes.
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Temperature
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Thermal stability is measured by this.
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Specific Heat.
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This is equal to the amount of heat (calories) required to change one gram of a substance 1 centigrade degree.
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Specific Heat
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The specific heat of water is _ and all other substances expect NH3 are lower.
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1.00
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The reason water has a high specific heat is because of this.
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The hydrogen bonds it makes with other water molecules
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Water breaks up into (2).
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Hydrogen Ion (H+) and Hydroxide Ion (OH-).
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If an H ion binds to another water molecule it forms
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Hydronium Ion (H30+)
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Hydrogen Ion concentration is measured through this.
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pH units
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ph = ___
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-log[H+]
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Mass / Volume is this.
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Concentration
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Molecular weight (or atomic weight) of a reactant expressed in grams.
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Mole
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Avogadro's Number
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6x10^23
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An acid is a substance which ___ the H+ resulting in more acidic pH.
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Releases
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A solution that resists change in pH by having components that act as a hydrogen ion acceptor or donor.
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Buffer Solution
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Organic molecules are molecules having two or more carbon atoms covalently bound to each other.
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Carbon Skeleton
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Other atoms that bind to the C skeleton that may be a single atom or a small group of atoms.
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Functional Groups
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Covalent bonds with C are most Stable if the bonds are single bonds because they would be arranged to form this.
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Tetrahedron.
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The number of electrons it needs to gain or lose to achieve greater stability.
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Valence Number
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These have two types of positions for C atoms: Terminal and Intermediate.
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Straight Chains
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These carbons have 3 covalent bonds for binding to other atoms.
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Terminal Chains
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These carbons only have 2 covalent bonds for binding to other atoms.
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Intermediate Carbons
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Carbon chains with three or more terminal positions depending on the number of branches.
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Branched Chains
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Molecules having different structural formulas but the same empirical formula.
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Isomers
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These carbon chains lack terminal positions.
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Rings
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When double bonds form between carbon atoms in the chain the number of bonds available for other atoms is reduced and are rigid.
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Unsaturated Bonds
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Unsaturated bonds are on _ plane(s)
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1
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Single bonds are on _ plane(s)
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4
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The arrangement of covalent bonds in the C chains differs as with straight chains vs. branched chains.
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Structural Isomers
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This Occurs in C skeletons with double bonds. Because these bonds do not allow atoms to rotate because they are held at two points, the atoms attached to the carbons may be oriented in two possible directions. i.e., cis and trans
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Geometric Isomers
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This is when the atoms attached to a carbon are arranged in such a way, even if they rotate, they are mirror images of each other as are the right and left hand.
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Enantiomers
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These are called Dextrorotary and levorotary compounds.
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Enantiomers
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Types of Functional Groups (5)
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Hydrocarbon, Nitrogenated, Phosphorylated, Oxygenated and Sulfonated
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Composed of H and C atoms
Covalent bonds in this group are C-C and C-H, both of which are non polar covalent bonds. |
Hydrocarbon Group
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Non Polar, Insoluble, Neutral pH, Abundant in lipids.
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Hydrocarbon Group
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The most significant of these groups in biological molecules is the amino group (R-NH2). N-H covalent bonds are very polar resulting in the N having a -d and the H having a +d charge. Since there are two of these bonds the N has a stronger negative Charge. As a result of this charge it is able to attract an H+ and hold it forming a radical, the ammounium ion (R-NH3+). This is a reversible reaction.
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Nitrogenated Group
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Amino Groups are abundant in proteins and nucleic acid. The properties of these are very polar, Ionizeable, Basic and Soluble.
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Nitrogenated Group
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The most common of these in biological molecules is the phosphate group (R-H2PO4). They are common in Nucleic acids and phospholipids.
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Phosphorylated Group
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These groups have 4 oxygen atoms and two hydrogen atoms joined to two of the O atoms with a O-H covalent bond. The O-H bonds are very polar and often ionize causing the H to dissociate and become a H+
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Phosphorylated Group
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The dissociation of H+ can result in two types of radical forms depending on how many H+ dissociate. If one dissociates it forms the ____.
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Biphosphate
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The dissociation of H+ can result in two types of radical forms depending on how many H+ dissociate. If both dissociates it forms the
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Phosphate ion.
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The properties of this group are being very polar, ionizable, acidic, soluble.
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Phosphorylated Group
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This group is the most varied in biological molecules and fall into three major categories of Alcohol Groups.
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Oxygenated Group
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Alcohol(hydroxl not the answer) groups contain R-O-H and have an O-H bond which is polar, Non-ionizeable, neutral, soluble, common in sugars.
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Oxygenated Group
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Molecules with these groups are called alcohols and their chemical names end in "-ol" i.e., methanol (CH3OH), ethanol (CH3CH2OH), isoproponal (CH3CHOHCH3)
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Oxygenated Group
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This group consists of double bonded oxygen to a C in the carbon Skeleton (C=O). They are common in sugars.
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Carbonyl Group
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Carbonyl Groups have to types.
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Aldehyde Group and Ketone Group.
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The caronyl carbon is in the terminal position, polar neutral, soluble.
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Aldehyde Group
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This carbonyl carbon is in an intermediate position and is polar, neutral, soluble, less reactive than aldehydes, molecules end in "-one"
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Ketone Group
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This group is always in a terminal position on the carbon skeleton. They are found in fatty acids and carbohydrates.
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Carboxyl Group
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This group consists of ____ carbon bound to 2 oxygen atoms and are very polar, ionizeable, acidic and soluble.
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Carboxyl Group
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This group's most abundant group is the sulfhydryl group. These are often found in proteins. R-S-H.
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Sulfonated Group
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The S-H bond is polar, non-ionizable, neutral and soluble. Sulfhydryl groups, with enzymes, can combine to form the most stable covalent bond.
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Disulfide bond
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This bond is abundant in structural proteins. They often form permanent folds in a single chain proteins or join two chains together.
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Disulfide bond
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Atoms C, H, O, N and S make up these.
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Proteins
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Most abundant functional groups (2) for proteins and all others except this (1).
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Amino and Carboxyl ... Phosphate
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Monomers:
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Amino Acids
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Covalent bonds:
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Peptide bonds
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Functions: Structural, enzymes, membrane transport, hormones, antibodies, clotting, antigens, myofibrils, connective tissue, matrix, cytoskeleton, receptor, storage.
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Proteins
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# of species of Amino Acids
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20
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Fundamental Structure of all amino acids.
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Delta carbon + amino group + carboxyl group
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Amino group is (basic or acidic)
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Basic (-NH2+H+ -> -NH3+)
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Carboxyl Group is (basic or acidic)
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Acidic (-COOH -> -COO- + H+)
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Amino Acid R Section has four categories.
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Non-Polar, Polar, Acidic, Basic
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Functional groups attached to the Alpha carbon - mostly hydrocarbons, least soluble, higher affinity for lipids.
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Non-polar amino acids
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More Soluble, Functional Groups: Alcohol m(-OH), sulfhydryl(-SH), and amino groups (-NH2) with competing carbonyl (=O) resulting in the amino group being polar, but non ionizable.
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Polar Amino Acids
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Additional carboxyl group attached to the carbon skeleton (R section).
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Acidic Amino Acids
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Join amino acids by their fundamental structures. Amino group of one amino acid joins to the carboxyl group of another. Each Amino Acid can make up to 2 peptide bonds i.e., one with its amino group and the other with its carboxyl group.
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Peptide Bonds
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Chains of amino acids. EAch chain has an amino end and a carboxyl end. When additional amino acids are added, by peptide bonds, they are added at the carboxyl end.
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Peptide Chains
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Peptide levels of organization.
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Monopeptide, Dipeptide, Oligopeptide and Polypeptide.
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One peptide bond, 2 amino acids.
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Monopeptide
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Two peptide bonds, 3 amino acids.
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Dipeptide
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Several peptide bonds.
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Oligopeptide
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Many peptide bonds.
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Polypeptide
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The fundamental structures joined by peptide bonds and the R sections which stick out.
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Backbone
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Polypeptides chains can fold and coil upon themselves and join to each other with a variety of bonds. This creates a hierarchy of structures.
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Structures of Protein
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The sequence of amino acids in the chain. This is the most fundamental part of the chain. All other properties are dependent on this structure.
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Primary 1' Structure
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Coiling and folding of the chain upon itself due to H-Bonding between the carboxyl and amino groups involved in peptide bonds. Since the H-bonds only occur between fundamental structures they are equally space apart resulting in repeated turns or folds.
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Secondary 2' Structure
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Secondary Structure has two shapes.
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Helix and Pleated Sheet
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A delicate spiral shape with repeated turns held together by H-bonding between every 4th amino acid.
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Helix
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A folding of the chain due to H-bonding between more distant amino acids (8-10 amino acids) results in a strongly held structure.
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Pleated Sheet
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Involved interactions between the R-sections (side chains) of the polypeptide chain. Varied interactions: H-Bonding (polar amino acids), Ionic Interactions (acidic and basic amino acids)
Hydrophobic interactions (non-polar amino acids), Disulfide bonds. Only occur between cysteine amino acids which have a sulfydryl group |
Tertiary 3' Structure
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Only those proteins consisting of more than one polypeptide chain. Describes how the chains are joined together.
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Qauternary 4' Structure
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In the Qauternary 4' Structure, chains are joined in one of 3 ways.
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Disulfide bonds, Ionic bonds, or Prosthetic groups
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Bonding of carboxyl group of an acidic amino acid to the amino acid group of a basic amino acid. Bonding of a carboxyl group or amino group to inorganic ions.
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Ionic bonds
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Non-Protein organic molecules which bind to the R section of the chains holding them together.
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Prosthetic Group
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Proteins all have two basic shapes.
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Fibrous Proteins and Globular Proteins
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Long Thin, generally play a structural role. (shape of protein)
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Fibrous Proteins
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Generally Spherical, Generally play a regulatory role.(shape of protein)
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Globular Protein
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Two degrees of changes in shape of protein.
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Denaturation and Coagulation.
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Reversible changing shape of protein.
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Denaturation
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Irreversible changing shape of protein.
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Coagulation
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Two types of Nucleic Acids.
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Ribonucleic Acids (RNA) and Deoxyribonucleic Acids (DNA)
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In the cell serves for protein synthesis and for some enzymes. In this viruses it serves as hereditary material.
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RNA
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Serves as hereditary material in all cells and many viruses. This is the largest molecule in the cell. All 46 chromosomes of a human cell, ranging from 2-5 um in diameter contain approximately one cm of this if it were played end to end.
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DNA
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C,H,O,N and P make up these acids. Functional groups: All excpet sulfonated groups.
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Nucleic Acids.
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Monomers: Generally all nucleotides. Covalent bonds joining nucleotides:
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3'-5' phosphodiester bonds.
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Structure of DNA was discovered by ___ and ____ in ___.
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Watson and Crick in 1953
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This person found DNA through X-Ray diffraction.
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Rosalind Franklin.
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All nucleotides have 3 components:
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Organic Phosphate Group, Pentose Sugar and Nitrogenated Base
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Ribonucleotides: Ribose, Deoxyribonucleotides:Deoxyribose make up this part of the nucleotide.
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Pentose Sugar
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All are ring-shaped columns with abundant nitrogenated groups (part of the nucleotide).
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Nitrogenated Base
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Two types of Nitrogenated Base.
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Pyrimidines and Purines
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Single Ring compound.
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Pyrimidines
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Double ring compounds.
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Purines
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The nucleotide structure is arranged this way.
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Phosphate - Sugar - Base
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Nucleotides that have 3 phosphates attached to each other.
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Triphosphorylated i.e. Phosphate - Phosphate - Phosphate - Sugar - Base
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|
These nucleotides are used for synthesis of nucleotide acids (RNA or DNA). The covalent bonds joining the extra 2 phosphate groups are high energy bonds to provide the energy used to make the covalent bonds which join the nucleotides to make RNA / DNA.
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Triphosphorylated Nucleotides
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This energy is a molecule used to provide energy for most cellular reactions and is a Triphosphorylatednucleotide.
|
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
|
|
All nucleotides bond to form a polynucleotide chain by forming this.
|
3'-5' phosphodiester bond
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These form between the pentoses of the 2 nucleotides being bound together.
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3'-5' phosphodiester bond
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The Alcohol on the #3 peontose of one nucleotide bonds to this.
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The phosphate group on the #5 carbon of the second nucleotide
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Each polynucleotide chain a _ and a _ end.
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3' and 5' end
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Each polynucleotide chain is in this shape.
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Helical Shape
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DNA is this, having two helical DNA strands attached to each other by H-bonding of their N-bases.
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Double Helix
|
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In order for N-Bases to H-bond they must match up with a d+ and d- charges. This can only occur between two
|
Complimentary base pairs
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Complimentary base pairs are these (2).
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A : T and G : C
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A and G are this.
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Purines
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G and C are this.
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Pyrimidine
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The helical strands are positioned in a ______ position to each other.
----> <--- |
Anti-parallel
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DNA replication is done through this type of replication.
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Semiconservative Replication
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In replication, the original strands of DNA serve as a guide or this.
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Template
|
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New Strands of DNA are this.
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Replica
|
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The origin of replication begins here.
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Replication Fork.
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Procaryotic chromosomes have ___ origin(s) of replication.
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1
|
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Eucaryotic chromosomes have ____ origin(s) of replication.
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Multiple
|
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There are _ number of replication forks per origin of replication.
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2
|
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When free nucleotides align on the template they are joined by forming this bond.
|
3'-5' phosphodiester bond
|
|
The daughter strand are each composed of one old strand (template) and one new strand.
|
Semiconservative Replication
|
|
Enzymes involved in DNA replication.
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DNA polymerase III, Helicases and Gyrases and others.
|
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Joins nucleotides by forming 3'-5' phosphodiester bonds.
|
DNA polymerase III
|
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Separate the template strands.
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Helicases and Gyrases
|
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Initiate DNA synthesis and make it possible for the anti parallel strands to preform DNA synthesis in synchrony with each other.
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Others: DNA polymerase II, Primase, DNA ligase
|
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Replication of cellular DNA occurs during this part of interphase.
|
S phase
|
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The cell needs to prepare for this synthetic process during this phase of interphase.
|
G1 phase
|
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To prepare the cells during __ phase it synthesizes an abundance of deoxyribonucleotides (A,T,G, and C) and enzymes.
|
G1 Phase
|
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New nucleotides are always added at the _ end of the growing replica strand.
|
3' End
|
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This is composed of ribonucleotides instead of deoxyribonoculeotides.
|
RNA
|
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This uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) as a pyrimidine base.
|
RNA
|
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RNA are _ to _ the length of DNA
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.1 to 1%
|
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RNA molecules are ___ stranded.
|
Single stranded, they do not have a complimentary strand.
|
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These do not function in heredity and their main function is in this.
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RNA and protein synthesis.
|
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Synthesis of RNA in the cell is by the process of this.
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Transcription
|
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Both of these are dependent on the pairing of complementary bases. Rely on a DNA template which will produce a product which is complementary to it. Require an enzyme to form 3'-5' phosphodiester bond between nucleotides.
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RNA and DNA
|
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Short segment of the DNA molecule.
|
Gene
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