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264 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What components were part of the early earth? (4)
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Carbon Dioxide
Water Vapor Nitrogen Hydrogen Gas |
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What has been a site of assembly of complex molecules of life?
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Hydrothermal vents and in shallow pools of clay-rich tidal flats.
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What did 2 researchers in the 60's say may have been the first informational molecule?
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RNA
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What did Stanely Miller's experiment demonstrate?
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That amino acids can assemble under some conditions.
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What did photosynthesis do in early evolution?
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It resulted in an increase in the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.
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The first eukaryotic cells may have been
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Protists
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Which of the following organelles are believed to have existed as independent prokaryotes in the past?
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Chloroplasts and mitochondria
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Eukaryote
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Organism that encloses its DNA in its nucleus
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Prokaryote
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single-celled organism; the DNA resides in the cytoplasm
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What gets injected into the Host cell in Lythic Pathway
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Nucleic Acid
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Lythic Pathway is when
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the virus attaches to a host cell and injects its DNA.
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In Lysogenic Pathway the viral DNA
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is integrated into the bacterial chromosome.
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Bacteriophages
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viruses that infect prokaryotes
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Pathogen
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disease causing agent
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Pandemic
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Disease breaks out and spreads world wide.
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Endemic
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occurs more or less continually but do not spread far in large populations.
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Sporadic
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Like whopping cough occur irregularly and affect a few people.
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epidemic
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disease spreads quickly through part of a population then subsides.
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Sporophyte
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diplooid spore-forming stage in a plant life cycle.
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Gametophyte
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haploid gamete-forming stage in a plant life cycle
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Eudicot
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angiosperms that includes herb plants, woody trees, and cacti
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lateral meristem
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source of secondary growth
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seed
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embryo sporophyte of a seed plan packaged with nutritive tissue inside a protective coat.
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vector
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animal that transmits a pathogen between a host
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parenchyma
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made up of living cells; main components of ground tissue
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pollen grain
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Male gametophytes of a seed plant
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sclerenchyma
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the lignin-reinforced walls of these cells structurally support plant parts
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apical meristem
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source of primary growth
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Ferns are classified as
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seedless vascular plants
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Photosynthetic plants evolved from
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Green algae
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What is common to both bryophytes and to seedless vascular plants
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Water required for fertilization
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What is common in ferns, club mosses, and horse tails
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Spores give rise to gametophytes
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A mushroom is
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a reproductive structure that releases sexual spores
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Fungi traits
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-Fungi include molds yeast and mushrooms
-in multicelled fungi cells are organized in structures called mycelia -all fungi produce spores -all fungi are decomposers |
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Plant Life cycle
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Diploid sporophyte-> Meiosis-> Spores-> Haploid sporophyte-> gametes-> Fertilization -> Zygote-> Mitosis -> Diploid
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Angiosperms are more advanced than gymnosperms because gymnosperms lack
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fruits
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Fungi Life cycle
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Fusion of spores -> Fusion of nuclei-> Zygote -> Meiosis-> End up with 4 spores which take off with wind.
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Xylem
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Distributes water and dissolved material ions through tubes with walls and vessel members
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Phloem
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Distributes sugars through a plant body; connect end-to-end at sieve plates, forming sieve tubes.
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Transpiration
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-evaporation of water from plants parts mainly at stomata into air
-puts negative pressure on continuous columns of fluid that fill narrow xylem vessels |
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Cohesion Tension Theory
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Explanation of how transpiration creates a negative pressure that pulls a column of water upward.
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How plants control water loss
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Cuticle- waxy waterproof secretion that coats plants surface
Stomata- gaps across the epidermis of leaves and other plant pars by a pair of a guard cells. |
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All Animals are multicellular
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heterotrophic, and aerobic
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A digestive track is said to be complete if it
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is a one-war tube with a mouth and an anus
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Coelom
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A body cavity with a complete lining of tissue derived from mesoderm; between the gut and body wall
Cushions/protects internal organs, moves independently of body wall |
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Pseudocoel
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Body cavity not fully lined with mesoderm
ex roundworm |
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Amniote adaptations to land include:
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-waterproof skin
-internal fertilization -highly efficient kidneys -specialized eggs |
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Cnidarian traits
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Radially symmetrical, with two tissue layers
Two body shapes; medusa or polyp Uses tentacles with stinging cells to capture food Ex: jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals |
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The chordate feature still present in the human adult is
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The nerve cord
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Chordate Traits
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A notochord
A dorsal hollow nerve cord (which becomes a brain and spinal cord) A pharynx with gill slits A tail extending past the anus |
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Amniotes Innovations
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Ability to regulate internal body temperature
Ectotherm (“cold-blooded”) Animal that gains heat from the environment Fish Endotherm (“warm-blooded”) Animal that produces its own heat Birds and mammals |
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Amniote
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Amniotes were the first vertebrates that did not require external water for reproduction
ex reptile or bird |
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Homeostasis
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The process of maintaining favorable conditions inside the body
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Why do we need homeostasis
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All structural levels interact in processes that keep conditions in the internal environment within levels that cells can tolerate if this doesn't happen our cells and organs can eventually not do their job and fail.
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Epithelial Tissues
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Sheet-like tissue with one surface always facing towards an outside environment
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Types of glands found in Epithelial tissue
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Exocrine gland
secretes onto a surface (internal or external) secretes milk, sweat Endocrine gland Ductless gland that secretes hormones into a body fluid |
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Connective Tissue
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Bind, support, strengthen, protect, and insulate other tissues
Animal tissue with extensive extracellular matrix Provides structural and functional support |
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Soft Connective Tissue
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Soft connective tissues hold body parts in place
Different types differ in proportions and arrangements of protein fibers, fibroblasts, and other cells |
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Loose Connective Tissue
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Loose connective tissue
Connective tissue with relatively few fibroblasts and fibers scattered in its matrix |
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Loose and Dense Connective Tissue
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Dense connective tissue
Connective tissue with many fibroblasts and collagen fibers in its matrix |
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Bone Tissue
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Bone tissue
Connective tissue with cells surrounded by a calcium-hardened matrix |
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Adipose tissue
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Connective tissue with fat-storing cells
Stores energy, cushions and protects, insulates |
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Skeletal Muscle Tissue
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Striated, voluntary muscle that attaches to bones to move body parts
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Grouping of human skeleton
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skull bones- cranial and facial
a vertebral column- the backbone Vertebrae- bones of the backbone (23) Intervertebral disks- cartilage disk between 2 vertebrae a rib cage a pelvic girdle a pectoral girdle paired limbs |
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Different joint types
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-Ball-and-socket joint (shoulder, hip)
-Gliding joints (wrists, ankles) -Hinge joints (elbows, knees) |
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Joints
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Region where bones meet and interact
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When muscles contract the opposing muscle will
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contracts
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Vertebrae being held together and cushioned by disks of cartilage describes what type of joint?
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Cartilaginous joint
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The pulmonary circuit involves blood moving from
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The heart, to lungs, bck to heart then to body tissues.
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The systemic circuit involves
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Oxygen-rich blood collected by the left atrium is pumped from the left ventricle, through the aorta, to capillary beds of the body
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Steps of cardiac cycle
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Atria and ventricles relax, atria contract, ventricles contract
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How cardiac contracts are regulated
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SA node is a clump of specialized cardiac cells int he wall of the right atrium referred to as the pacemaker
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Blood pressure
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Pressure exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels
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The bulge of ___ during the contraction of the ventricles is referred to as the ___
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Bulging of artery is the pulse
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Little thin walled air sacs that are sites of gas exchange in the lungs are
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alveoli
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Pharynx
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Throat; opens to airways and digestive tract
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Larynx
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Short airway containing vocal cords (voice box);
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Glottis
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Opening formed when the vocal cords relax
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Bronchus
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Airway connecting the trachea to a lung
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Innate immunity
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set of inborn general defenses against infection
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Antibody-mediated responses work against
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Extracellular pathogens and cancerous cells
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White blood cells
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Help carry out immune response
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Innate Immunity defenses include
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-phagocytosis
-complement system -inflammation -fever |
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B cells or T cells that have yet to bring to an antigen are called
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naiive
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The ability of the adaptive immune response to tailor its reponse to a particular antigen is referred to as
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diversity
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If a person is incapable of making effector helper T cells what will result?
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Memory B and Effector B cells will not be produced.
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Auto-immune disorders are caused by
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lymphocytes and antibody molecules attacking self cells instead of only foriegn cells.
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Digestion is defined as
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breaking food down into small nutrient molecules
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The stomach
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secretes enzymes that begin to break down proteins
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Most digestion and absoption occurs
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in the small intestine
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Main organs in animal digestive system
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Stomach
small intestine large intestine |
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A nephron is
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a kidney tubule and the associated capillaries
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The antidiuretc hormone (ADH)
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signals your body to reabsorb more water as the filtrate passed through the nephron and is inhibited by alcohol.
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Kidney function
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Constantly filters water and all solutes except proteins from blood; reclaims water and solutes as the body requires, and excretes the remainder as urine
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Filtration
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kidney-- blood pressure forces water and solubles but not proteins out across the wall of capillaries
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Identify the correct interaction of neurons in the vertebrate nervous system.
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stimulus, sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, effectors
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Axons bundled in connective tissue are called
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nerves
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The somatic nervous system
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is part of the peripheral nervous system.
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In order to establish a membrane potential, the cytoplasmic fluid is __________ compared to the interstitial fluid
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more negatively charged
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A brief reversal of the electric gradient across the plasma membrane is called
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an action potential.
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The communication point between two neurons is called the
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chemical synapse.
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Nerves of the autonomic system
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are under involuntary control and relay all of these signals
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The corpus callosum
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is a thick band of tissue that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum
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The forebrain includes which of the following portions of the brain?
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cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus
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Sensory receptors convert stimulus energy into
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action potentials
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Visceral pain
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-is associated with organs inside the body cavities
-is NOT signaled by pain receptors in the skin -occurs in response to smooth muscle spasms -occurs due to inadequate blood flow to an internal organ |
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The __________ of the eye focuses light on the eye’s photoreceptors.
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Lens
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Which is the predominant second messenger involved in regulating glucose metabolism?
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cAMP
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The hormone that is antagonistic in action to glucagon is
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insulin
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Which of the following is TRUE of sex hormones at puberty?
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In males, testosterone production rise
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Which of the following statements is TRUE?
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Although hormones are carried to all parts of the body, they produce effects only in cells with proper receptors
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Excess glucose is converted into glycogen in
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the liver
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Both lobes of the pituitary gland are controlled by the
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hypothalamus
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The control over milk production and labor in childbirth is mediated by the __________ gland
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posterior pituitary
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The luteinizing hormone
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has roles in gamete formation and other reproductive aspects in both sexes
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The thymus gland has a direct influence on
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infection-fighting memory T cells
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Which hormone is involved in a negative feedback relationship with the anterior pituitary and the hypothalamus?
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cortisol
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Which combination of hormones causes the gonads to secrete hormones?
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FSH and LH
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Which of the following encourages growth of bone and soft tissues in the young?
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GH
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The heart, muscles, bones, and blood develop from
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mesoderm
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Select the correct sequence of animal developmental events.
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fertilization >>> cleavage >>> gastrula >>> organ formation
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Shortly after fertilization, successive cell divisions convert the zygote into a multicellular embryo during a process known as
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cleavage
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The major difference between the male and female reproductive systems is
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the provision of a site for fertilization and development in the female
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During ejaculation sperm pass from the epididymis into the
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vas deferens
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Which of the following statements about sperm is FALSE?
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Sperm formation requires a full 30 days
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ch of the following are male secondary sexual characteristics?
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-growth of hair on face, armpits, and pubic area
-thickened vocal cords -altered distribution of fat and muscle |
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Ovulation is triggered primarily by
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a surge of LH that occurs halfway through the menstrual cycle
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The type of contraception that works because ovulation is prevented is
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birth control pills
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During a human pregnancy, implantation occurs at which stage?
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blastocyst
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Which of the following hormones is produced only when a woman is pregnant?
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human chorionic gonadotropin
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In humans, the fluid immediately surrounding the embryo is contained in the
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amnion
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Neuron send signals at
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axon endings
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____ occur mainly in the brain and spinal cord.
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Interneurons
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An action potential occurs when_____
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a neuron reaches threshold potential
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Neurotransmitters are released by
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axon endings
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When you sit quietly on the couch reading, output from the ___ system prevails.
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parasympathetic
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Skeletal muscles are controlled by____ nerves.
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somatic
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A ____ is an automatic response that does not require thought.
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reflex
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The two halves of the cerebrum
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are connected by the corpus callosum
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The blood-brain carrier controls what enter
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the cerebrospinal fluid
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Which is a somatic sensation?
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touch
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____ is reduced response to an ongoing stimulus.
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Sensory adaptation
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Chemoreceptors play a role in the sense of
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smell
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In a vertebrae eye photoreceptors are in the
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retina
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Color blindness arises when___ are missing or defective
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cone cells
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rod cell
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detects light
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cochlea
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sorts out pressure waves
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cerebellum
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coordinates voluntary moves
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brain stem
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connects to spinal cord
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cerebral cortex
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governs higher thought
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taste bud
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contains chemoreceptors
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myelin
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speeds signal transmission
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neurotransmitter
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secreted at synapse
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blood-brain barrier
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protects brain and spinal cord from some toxins
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Chemical synapse
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Region where a neuron’s axon endings transmit signals to another cell
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vomeronasal organ
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detects pheromones
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Acetylcholine
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(Ach) acts on skeletal, smooth, & cardiac muscle, as well as glands and the brain
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Alzheimer’s disease-
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low Ach level in the brain contributes to memory loss
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Parkinson’s disease-
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dopamine-secreting neurons involved in motor control die or are impaired
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Ganglion
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Cluster of neuron cell bodies that functions as an integrating center; connected to nerve cords
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Central nervous system
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Brain and Spinal Cord
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Peripheral nervous system
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Nerves that extend through the body and carry signals to and from the central nervous system
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Somatic nervous system
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Nerves that control skeletal muscles and relay signals from joints and skin
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Autonomic nervous system
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Nerves that relay signals to and from internal organs and to glands
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Sympathetic neurons
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Neurons that prepare the body for danger or excitement; dominate in a fight-flight situation
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Parasympathetic neurons
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Neurons that encourage housekeeping tasks; dominate in a relaxed state
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Meninges
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Membranes that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord
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Two types of CNS tissue
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Grey Matter and White MAtter
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White Matter
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Tissue of brain and spinal cord consisting of bundles of myelinated axons (tracts)
Carries information between parts of the CNS |
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Grey Matter
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Tissue in brain and spinal cord consisting of cell bodies, dendrites, and neuroglial cells
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Medulla oblongata
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Region that controls breathing rhythm and reflexes such as coughing and vomiting
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Pons
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Region between medulla oblongata and midbrain; has a role in control of breathing
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Cerebellum
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Region that coordinates voluntary movements
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Hypothalamus
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Homeostatic control center; interacts with pituitary
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Left Hemisphere of the brain
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Controls right side of your body
More active in controlling language Math & logic |
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Right hemisphere of the brain
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Controls left side of your body
More active in controlling spatial abilities; facial recognition; visual imagery & music |
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Cornea
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Transparent outermost layer at the front of the eye; bends light
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Sclera
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Dense, white, fibrous protective covering at sides and back of the eyeball
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Choroid
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Pigmented middle layer of the wall of the eye
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Iris
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Ring of smooth muscle with pupil at its center; adjusts how much light enters the eye
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Pupil
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Opening through which light enters the eye
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___ is signaling molecules by endocrine cells and glands enter the blood and are distributed through the body.
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Hormones
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Antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin are hormones produced in the hypothalmus but released from the ___
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posterior lobe of pituitary
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Protein hormones typically bind to receptors
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at the plasma membrane
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antidiuretic hormone targets:
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kidneys
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oxytocin targets:
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mammary glands, uterus
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luteinizing hormone
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gonads, ovaries, testes
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Growth hormone
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most body cells
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Overproduction of _____ causes acromegaly and pituitary gigantism
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growth hormone
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The ____ regulates calcium levels in the blood.
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parathyroid glands
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___ lowers blood sugar levels; ___ raises it.
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Insulin; glucagon
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A rise in hormone concentration in the blood slows production of that hormone in a ___ feedback loop.
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Negative
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The ___ produces digestive enzymes and hormone.
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pancrease
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A diet lacking in iodine can cause
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a goiter
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Who makes follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
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Men & Women
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A person with an overly active thyroid gland is more like to be unusually
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anxious
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During stressful situations that adrenal glands increase their output of
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-cortisol
-epinephrine -norepinephrine |
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The male sex hormone testosterone is secreted in response to secretion of hormones by the__
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pituitary gland
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adrenal cortex
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stress increases secretions
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thyroid gland
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hormones require iodine
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thymus gland
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alls T cell maturation
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parathyroid glands
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blood calcium effect
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pancreatic islets
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insulin, glucagon source
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pineal glands
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light inhibits secretion
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hypothalmus
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major control center
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testes
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make gametes and hormones
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Endocrine System
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Hormone-producing glands and secretory cells of a vertebrate body
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Steroid Hormone
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Hormone derived from cholesterol
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Second Messener
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Molecule that forms inside a cell when a hormone binds at the cell surface; starts a cascade of enzyme reactions inside the cell
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Hypothalmus
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Forebrain region that controls processes related to homeostasis, and has endocrine functions
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Pituitary Gland
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Pea-sized endocrine gland in the forebrain, connected to the hypothalamus by a slender stalk
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Posterior Pituitary
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lobe secretes hormones made by the hypothalamus
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Anterior Pituitary
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Anterior lobe makes its own hormones, but secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus
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ACT
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tells the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol
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TSH
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calls for thyroid hormone secretion
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FSH
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stimulate hormone production by male and female gonads; roles in gamete formation
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The thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus are:
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Endocrine glands of the neck and upper chest
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Thyroid Gland
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Produces thyroid hormone; increases metabolic rate and plays an important role in development
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Parathyroid Glands
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Regulate calcium levels in blood
Release parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to low calcium levels; increases breakdown of bone and reduces calcium output in urine |
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Thymus
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Produces thymosins required for differentiation of naïve T cells into their active forms
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Pancreas
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secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine, and hormones (insulin and glucagon) into the bloodstream
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Insulin
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Stimulates uptake of blood glucose by muscle and liver cells, lowering blood glucose level
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Glucagon
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Stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and release glucose, raising blood glucose level
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Adrenal Gland
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Gland above the kidney that secretes hormones with roles in urine formation and stress responses
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Adrenal Cortex
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Outer portion of the adrenal gland
Secretes aldosterone (which concentrates urine) and cortisol (the stress hormone) |
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Adrenal Medulla
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Inner portion of the adrenal gland
Sympathetic neurons secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine; causes a fight-flight response |
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Cortisol
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Adrenal cortex hormone with wide-ranging effects on metabolism and immunity
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Pineal gland
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Endocrine gland in the forebrain that secretes melatonin; secretion declines when the eye is exposed to light
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Melatonin
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Hormone produced by the pineal gland
Melatonin secretion rises and falls in daily and seasonal cycles |
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____ reproduction produces genetic copies of a parent.
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Asexual
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A ___ produces both eggs and sperm.
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Hermaphrodite.
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A ___ is a hollow ball of cells that become a ____ by the process of gastrulation.
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blastula, gastrula
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Meiotic divisions of germ cells in the ___ give rise to sperm.
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semniferous tubule
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During a menstrual cycle, a midcycle surge of ___ secreted by the pituitary triggers ovulation.
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LH
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After ovulation, the corpus luteum secretes
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Progesterone.
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A ___ implants in the lining of the uterus.
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blastocyst
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Human Development sequence
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Zygote forms-> Blastocyst forms -> Gastrulation occurs ->Neural tube forms -> heart starts beating
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What STD are causes by bacteria
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chlamydia & Gnorrhea
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The placenta comes with
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maternal tissue & chorion tissue
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Secretion of oxytocin stimulates
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contraction of uterine smooth muscle &ovulation
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Testis
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produces testosterone
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Cervix
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entrance to uterus
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Placenta
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maternal and fetal tissues
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Vagina
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birth canal
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Ovary
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produces estrogen and progesterone
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Oviduct
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usual site of fertilization
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prostate gland
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add fluids to sperm in semen.
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mammary gland
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secretes milk
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Zygote
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Diploid cell formed by fusion of gametes; first cell of a new individual
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Cleavage
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Mitotic division of an animal cell
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Blastula
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Hollow ball of cells that forms early in animal development
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Gastrulation
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Animal developmental process by which cell movements produce a three-layered gastrula
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Gastrula
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Three-layered developmental stage formed by gastrulation in an animal
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Ectoderm
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Outermost layer; forms nervous system and outer body coverings
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Mesoderm
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Middle layer; forms muscles, skeleton, and circulatory, respiratory and excretory systems
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Endoderm
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Innermost layer; forms gut linings, other organs
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Vas derferens
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Main duct that conveys mature sperm toward the urethra
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Seminal vesciles
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Secrete fructose-rich fluid into the vas deferentia
Main source of semen volume |
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Prostate Gland
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Secretions raise pH of semen
Encircles male urethra; enlarges with age |
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Bulbourethral glands
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Secrete mucus that clears the urethra
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Primary oocyte
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An immature egg, arrested in meiosis prophase I
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Ovarian follicle
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Immature egg and surrounding cells
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Blastocyst
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Mammalian version of the blastula
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Amnion
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Extraembryonic membrane that encloses an amniote embryo and the amniotic fluid
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