Bio Exam 2 Review

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Meiosis

Back 1

results in Gametes
Steps:
-meiosis I
--prophase I
----synapsis (pairing of homologous chromosomes)
--metaphase I (chromatins align)
--anaphase I (chromatins pulled apart by mitotic spindle)
--telophase I (two new nuclei form and result is two new cells)
-meiosis II
--prophase II
--metaphase II
--anaphase II
--telophase II (4 daughter cells, each w/ 23 chromosomes)

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Ploidy

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number of pairs of chromosomes within a cell (humans- 23 pairs)

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Sources of Genetic Variability in Meiosis

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Crossing Over (homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information)
Independent Assortment (chromosomes are randomly pulled to random new cells)
Random Fertilization (64 trillion possible combinations)

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Homologous Chromosome

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carry different versions of the same gene, called alleles at the same loci.

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Spermatogenesis vs. oogenesis

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spermatogenesis produces four sperm cells and takes 2 months while oogenesis produces one egg taking 15-30 years.

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Mendelian Genetics

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Mendel was a mathematician interested in probability. Studied pea plants

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Trait

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the displayed result of the gene

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Gene

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the section of the chromosome that carries a specific trait

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Phenotype

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what is seen in nature-- may be limited by environment

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Genotype

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the genetic makeup of an individual

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Sex linked

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gene located on the sex chromosome. X for female Y for male.

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Molecular link b/w pheno and genotype.

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Proteins

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Linked Genes

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genes found close together on chromosomes that tend to be inherited together.

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Dominant

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the allele that determines the phenotype of a particular gene.

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Recessive

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the allele that has no noticeable effect on the phenotype, unless you end up with two recessive alleles

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Allele

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different version of the same gene

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Co-dominance (incomplete dominance)

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the idea that a hetero zygous carrier will display both characteristic of the dominant and the recessive gene

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Gamete

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sex cells, sperm and egg

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carrier

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an individual who is heterozygous for a recessively inherited disorder and who therefore does not show symptoms of that disorder

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mutation

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a change in the DNA; can be caused by a virus, radiation, or errors in DNA copying

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Disorder vs. Disease

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disorder is a genetic problem while disease is something that can be caught

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Genetic Test

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test for genetic markers for specific disease or disorders

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Homozygous

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someone who carries two copies of the same allele.

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Heterozygous

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someone who carries one copy of each allele.

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F1

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the offspring of two parental individual

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F2

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the offspring of the F1 generation

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Parent cross

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crossing of a homozygous dominant and a homozygous recessive individual

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Test cross

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crossing of an individual of a known genotype with an individual of an unknown genotype in order to determine the genotype of the unknown.

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Multiple Alleles

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not just one dominant and one recessive

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Chromosome

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the main gene-carrying structure of a prokaryotic cell. Consists of chromatins.

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Homologous Chromosome

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carry different versions of the same gene, called alleles at the same loci.

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Locus/Loci

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the location of the allele on a chromosome

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Pleitropy

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a singel gene may have an effect on multiple characteristics.

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Polygenetic Inheritance

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multiple genes affect a single characteristic

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Population Genetics

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the study of the frequency, the distribution, and the change of alleles within a given population under the influence of natural selection, mutation, genetic drift, and gene flow.

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Population Size and Evolution

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smaller population increases evolution; larger population slows evolution.

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Environment Effect on Genes

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environment will not effect an individuals genotype. may effect phenotype. environment will effect population's genetics.

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Sex chromosomes

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the chromosome that determines if an individual is male or female.

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Molecular Genetics

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studies the structure and function of genes at the molecular level

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Protein Synthesis

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Process of making protein
-transcription; translation; post translational

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Gene Expression

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Protein Synthesis; the part of the DNA that is expressed.

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Expression Level

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amount of protein being made by specific cell

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Transcription

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transfer of genetic information from DNA to RNA

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Translation

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info encoded within mRNA is interpreted into protein; genetic info of RNA is written in codons

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DNA

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made of nucleic acids; nucleotides

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RNA

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3 of 4 nucleotides; one different base, no double helix

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Protein

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a biological polymer constructed of amino acid monomers

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Codon

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basic unit of the genetic code; codons, start codon, stop codon

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nucleotide

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the building blocks of nucleic acid

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mRNA

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messenger RNA; carries instruction received from DNA

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tRNA

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reads codon

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Gene Regulation

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allows organisms to adapt to changing environments
allows cells to perform specialized roles
enables them to maintain roles

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Methods of Gene Regulation

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Transcription Regulation
Translation Regulation/ Control
Post Translational Processing Controls

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Transcription

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occurs in nucleus
most important in gene reg.
performed by transcription factors

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Translation

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degradation rate of mRNA
translation initiation-if translation doesn't start, no protein made

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Transcription factors

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inactive in cytoplasm- starts transcription monitoring environment so it is known what proteins need to be made and what need to be stopped

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Development

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based on timing and position

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Epigenetic

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"above the genes" where most hereditary development occurs

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Differentiation

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specialization in the structure and function of cells

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Evolution

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genetic change in a population or species over generations.

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Microevolution

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evolutionary changes that occur with in relatively brief periods of time

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Macroevolution

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evolutionary change on a large scale

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Darwin

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THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES.
1.) Species today descended from previous living species
2.) changes occurred by natural selection.

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Lamarck

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idea that species changed due to environment, but no idea how.
use/disuse

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Use/Disuse

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if a trait is used it will be conserved and passes on, if it's not used it will be lost

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Natural Selection

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traits are selected for by nature (no control)

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Artificial Selection

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specific traits are bread for (dog breeding)

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Support for Darwin's Theory

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Fossil Records
Biogeography- geographic distribution of species
Comparative anatomy
Comparative Embryology
Molecular Biology

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Unit of Evolution

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Population- group of similar individuals who tend to mate together and produce viable offspring but are limited to a specific geographic area

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Species

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group of similar individuals who tend to mate together and produce viable offspring

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Reproductive Barriers

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biological feature of species that prevents it from interbreeding with other species even when they live together; timing, behavior, habitat

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Speciation

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creation of new species due to a prolonged separation of parts of a population.

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Mechanisms of Speciation

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Allopatric Spec. (other fatherland)
Sympatric Spec. (same fatherland)
Adaptive Radiation- environmental change causes extinction.

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Speciation Tempo

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gradual adaptation
fossil record

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Exaptation

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shift in the function of a trait

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Evo-Devo

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Evolutionary Development
-study importance of genes in evolution
-organisms may have same genes but used differently

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Pangea

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idea that the world started as a supercontinent that drifted apart

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Mass Extinctions

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influence macroevolution; afterwards there will be sharp rise in species b/c of lack of competition.

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Species Diversity

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variety of species that make up a community

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Protist

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single celled eukaryote that multi-cellular organisms came from

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Algae

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autotrophic (makes own food) undergoes photosynthesis

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Protozoan

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heterotrophic (gets food from somewhere else)

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Plant Adaptation

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obtaining resources (roots)
support- strengthening of cell walls
moisture maintenance
reproduction- seeds and pollen

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Vascular vs. non-vascular

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stronger plants vs. weaker plants but both able to reproduce

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Bryophytes

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non vascular, first land plants, not a strong cell wall. thick and spongy.

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Seed vs. Seedless

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seed plants have no need for water at reproduction while seedless need an abundance

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Flower

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reproductive structure for developing seeds- animals eat which helps plant migration

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Gymnosperm

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naked seed plant. not enclosed in a fruit.

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Angiopserm

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a flowering plant that forms seeds inside a protective chamber

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Coevolution

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animals and angiosperms depend on each other. angio is food for animal and animal helps migrate angio.

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Fungi

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eukaryotic heterotrophs more related to animals get food from absorption and considered decomposers of ecosystem

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Animal

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multicellular eukaryotes
5 criteria
--ingestive
--lack cell wall
--muscle and nerve cells
--reproduce sexually
--share same developmental gene pool; HOX genes

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Echinoderm

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sessile animals characterized by radial symmetry in adults
free swimming larval stage
starfish, sand dollars, sea urchins

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Neoteny

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retention of larval characteristics in the adult form

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Why Move to Land?

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better food
less predators
oxygen

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Deuterostome

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has two openings, one for food going in and an anus

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Fish

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came from sessile creatures
must go through neoteny
no jaws
no fins
armored head shield

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Amphibians

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First land vertebrates
tetrapods
glandular
skeleton
sensory organs

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Reptiles

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first true land animals
not tied to water
land egg

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Air vs. Water

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more oxygen in air, buoy up and gravity down, temperature,
variety in habitat on land,

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Water egg vs. land egg

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away from predators in water, don't need water and can provide shelter on land.