Bio Exam 2

Front 1

Energy

Back 1

-Ability to do work
-Potential energy
-Energy housed in a body (any level of organization)
- Energy stored within a system
-‘potential’ energy because it has the potential to be harvested and/or transformed into other types of energy

Front 2

Metabolism

Back 2

-Harvesting, making and using energy
-All chemical reactions that occur in an organism

-A rate (Basal Metabolic Rate) generally measured as mL O2/hr)
-Made up of processes
- Anabolism = building up

- Catabolism = breaking down

Front 3

Anabolism

Back 3

-Biosynthesis
-Building complex molecules from simpler ones
-Building up tissue types and organs
-Cell growth and repair
-Development of body
- Monomers (subunits) into macromolecules

Front 4

Catabolism

Back 4

-Breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones
- Makes materials available for anabolism
-monomer recycling, digestion example… Makes energy available for work
-further breakdown of monomers yields chemical energy (adenosine triphosphate or ATP)

Front 5

Laws of Thermodynamics

Back 5

All organisms exchange energy with their
surroundings

Front 6

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Back 6

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can
be converted from one form to another--eating

Front 7

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Back 7

- Energy transformations are never 100% efficient (eg, jogging, automobile)
-Some energy is “lost” or becomes unusable (heat) 60%)
-Need constant input/supply of energy

Front 8

Aerobic Cellular Respiration

Back 8

C6H12O6
+ 6O2 = ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O
glucose (food) + oxygen = energy (ATP
40% and Heat 60%)

- Carbon dioxide and water are waste products
-Heat is also considered a “waste” product

Front 9

Reduced = gain e-

 Oxidized = lose e
-
 *OIL RIG
 Coenzymes
 NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
 NAD vs NADH (oxidized vs reduced forms)
 FAD (Flavin Adenin Dinucleotide)
 FAD vs FADH and FADH2 (oxidized vs reduced forms)
 Acetyl CoA

Back 9

None

Front 10

Glycolysis

Back 10

In cytosol
-Splits glucose (6 C sugar) into two 3 C sugars
- Each 3 C sugar is oxidized to form 2 pyruvate
molecules

-Energy gain:
2 Pyruvate
2 ATP
2 NADH

Front 11

Citric Acid Cycle

Back 11

- In mitochondria
- Enzymes transform 2 pyruvate
from Glycolysis into 2 Acetyl CoA
- Only 1 Acetyl CoA needed for
CAC so must cycle twice to yield
total products

-Energy gain:
2 ATP
8 NADH
2 FADH2

Front 12

Electron Transport Train

Back 12

- In mitochondria
- NADH and FADH2
from CAC and Glycolysis travel
along membrane donating electrons (ie, oxidized)

*Electrons can be
separated from Hydrogen
ions so think of its as e-
and H+

Front 13

ATP Synthase

Back 13

-Protein embedded in mitochondria membrane
- Move H+down concentration gradient creating ATP

- Oxidative phosphorylation
- 32-34 ATP per glucose molecule

Front 14

Final total of our running tab…
- Net energy gain per glucose molecule:
- Approx 32-38 ATP
- Mitochondria are “powerhouse” of cell
- Generate energy needed to power our body

Back 14

none

Front 15

Fermentation

Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

Back 15

Generates ATP in absence of O2
= anaerobic
- 2 ATP per glucose molecule, much less efficient
- Normal Glycolysis but without oxygen no ETC
-NADH build up

Front 16

Homeostasis

Back 16

Ability to maintain equilibrium within internal
environment
-Cope with changes by anatomical, behavioral and/or physiological compensation
-Temperature affects homeostasis
- Constant bombardment of temperature fluctuation

Front 17

Thermoregulation

Back 17

-Maintaining body temperature in some optimal range
-Enables all levels of the physiology hierarchy to function efficiently and effectively
-To regulate temperature of the body, we rely on:
-Anatomy
- Physiology
- Behavior

Front 18

Temperature is a measure of heat...and heat is energy

Back 18

none

Front 19

Heat Exchange

Back 19

-Successful thermoregulation must
consider ways in which we exchange
heat with our environment
-Conduction
-Radiation
-Convection
-Evaporation

Front 20

Conduction

Back 20

-Direct transfer of heat between a body and the
environment
- Heat will always be conducted from the warmer to the colder

Front 21

Radiation

Back 21

-Transfer of heat between objects that are not in
direct contact
- Absorb heat from sun

Front 22

Convection

Back 22

- Transfer of heat by the movement of air past
the surface of the body
-Wind chill
- Fan

Front 23

Evaporation

Back 23

- Loss of heat from a wet surface
- Water molecules evaporate into a gas, heat is lost during this change in state
- Sweating, panting, etc.

Front 24

Thermoregulation

Back 24

-Metabolism requires specific
body temperatures
- However, also creates a lot of
heat so need
- Radiation
-Conduction
- Evaporation
- Convection

Front 25

Fat Soluble Vitamins

Back 25

Front 26

Water Soluble

Back 26

Front 27

Central Nervous System

Back 27

consists of the brain and spinal cord

-it is responsible for integrating, processing, and coordinating sensory data and motor commands

Front 28

Peripheral Nervous System

Back 28

Includes all neural tissue outside the CNS

Front 29

Receptors

Back 29

Are sensory Structures that detect changes in the internal or external environment

Front 30

Sensory Division

Back 30

The sensory division of the PNS brings information from receptors to the CNS

Front 31

Motor Division

Back 31

Of the PNS carries motor command from the CNS to the effectors or target organs

Front 32

Nuerons

Back 32

Are Nerve cells specialized for intercellular communication

-Neurons have three general regions:

-Dendrites that receive stimuli

-A cell body that contains the nucleus and other organelles

-an axon thats carries information to other cells

Front 33

Telodendria

Back 33

A main axon trunk end in a series of extensions--end at axon terminals

Front 34

Axon Terminals

Back 34

Or Synaptic terminals where the neuron communicates with other cells---Synapse

Front 35

Neurotransmitters

Back 35

Communication between a Presynaptic cell and a Postsynaptic cell most commonly involves the release of this chemical

-Released to effect the membrane potential of another neuron

 More than 100 different neurotransmitters
 Hormones may act as neurotransmitters
 Chemical communication between and among
neurons
 Most Common:
 Acetylcholine
 Norepinephrine/Epinephrine

Front 36

Anaxonic Neurons

Back 36

Are small and lack anatomical features that distinguish dendrites from axons--all cell processes look alike-are located in the brain and special sense organs

Front 37

Bipolar Neurons

Back 37

Have two distinct processes

-One dendritic process that branches extensively at its distal tip and one axon-with the cell body between the two

-Rare but appear in special sense organs-sight, smell and hearing

-Are small

Front 38

Unipolar Neuron

Back 38

The dendrites and axon are continuous-basically fused and the cell body lies off to one side

-Most sensory neurons in the PNS are unipolar

Front 39

Multipolar Neurons

Back 39

Have two or more dendrites and a single axon

-These are the most common neurons in the CNS

-All motor neuron that control skeletal muscles for example are multipolar neurons

Front 40

Sensory Neuron

Back 40

Are unipolar neurons whose bodies are in the PNS, form the afferent division of the PNS and deliver the information from sensory receptors to the CNS

Front 41

Interneuron

Back 41

Usually lie between sensory and motor neurons

-Receive sensory information from the PNS as well as input from other interneurons in the CNS

-Responsible for higher functions such as memory, planning and learning

Front 42

Motor Neurons

Back 42

Innervate the effector organ

-Somatic-skeletal muscle fibers

-Visceral-Smooth muscle, glands, cardiac muscle and adipose tissue

Front 43

Neuroglia or Glial Cells

Back 43

Support and protect neurons

Front 44

Ependymal Cells

Back 44

Are associated with cerebrospinal fluid production and circulation

Front 45

Microglia

Back 45

Remove cellular debris and pathogens

Front 46

Astrocytes

Back 46

Maintain the blood brain barrier that isolates the CNS from the chemicals and hormones circulating in the blood

Front 47

Oligodendrocytes

Back 47

Provide a structural framework within the CNS by stabilizing the positions of the axons

-Produce myelin

Front 48

Myelin Sheath

Back 48

Surround axons making up white matter in CNS

-Membraneous wrapping increases speed of nerve impulse transmission

 Myelin sheath is incomplete
 Myelin-wrapped area are called internodes
 Gaps between internodes called nodes (or nodes of Ranvier)
 Axons that have myelin sheath are myelinated
 Appear white due to lipid content
 Areas with lots of myelinated axons make up white matter of the CNS

Front 49

Grey Matter

Back 49

Unmyelinated neuron cell bodies, dendrites and unmyelinated cell axons in CNS

Front 50

Schwann Cells

Back 50

form a myelin sheath around of enclose segments of axons in the PNS

Front 51

Satellite Cells

Back 51

surround cell bodies in ganglia in PNS

Front 52

Sensory Ganglia

Back 52

Or ganglion is a collection of Neuron cell bodies in PNS-

Front 53

Wallerian Degeneration

Back 53

Process that often fails to restore full function in repairs of nerves in PNS

Front 54

Membrane Potential

Back 54

Is the unequal charge distribution between the inner and outer surfaces of the plasma membrane where there is a slight negative charge inside the plasma membrane with respect to the outside.

-Electrical potential
- Difference in charges between inside and outside cell
due to difference in ion concentrations
- “Potential energy” aka polarized
- Potential to create electrical current
-Neurons are not unlike batteries…

Front 55

Resting Potential

Back 55

The membrane potential of an undisturbed cell

-All neural activities begin with a change in the resting potential of a neuron

- Many ions present
- Interested mainly in:
- Sodium (Na+)
-Potassium (K+)--allowed in by leak channels

Front 56

Graded Potential

Back 56

A localized change, caused by a stimulus, in the resting potential.

-This change, which decreases with distance away from the stimulus is the graded potential

Front 57

Action Potential

Back 57

If a graded potential is large, it will trigger an action potential in the excitable membrane of the axon.

-it is an electrical event that involves one location on the membrane.

-Once it develops in one location, it spreads along the surface of an axon toward the axon terminals

Action potential
 All or none law
 Costs a lot of ATP! (energetically costly)
 Feed the brain

 Refractory period
 Time to re-polarize
 Time to relax and rejuvenate!

Front 58

Synaptic Activity

Back 58

Produces graded potentials in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. Involves the release of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic cell and the compound bind to receptors on the postsynaptic plasma membrane changing is permability

Front 59

Information Processing

Back 59

The integration of stimuli at the level of the individual cell is the simplest form of info processing in the nervous system

Front 60

Gated Channels

Back 60

-change permeability in plasma membrane

Front 61

Chemically Gated Channel

Back 61

Open when specific chemicals such as ACh bind to them

Front 62

Voltage Gated Channels

Back 62

Open or Close in response to changes in the membrane potential and are characteristic of excitable membranes

Front 63

Mechanically Gated Channels

Back 63

Open in response to physical distortion of the membrane surface--they are found in sensory receptors that respond to touch, vibration or pressure

Front 64

Depolarization

Back 64

Any shift from resting potential toward a more positive value

Front 65

Repolarization

Back 65

return to resting potential

Front 66

Hyperpolarization

Back 66

Shift in membrane potential more negative than negative potential

Front 67

Generating Signals

Back 67

 Stimulus = Disturbance in resting membrane
potential
 Stimulated means excited thus no longer “resting”
 Chemical stimulus binds to cell membrane
 Triggers ion gates to open…

Front 68

Transmitting Signals-short Distances

Back 68

 Unmyelinated membranes
 Changes in voltage excite adjacent membrane
 Chain reaction
 Signal cannot travel “backwards” due to refractory
period
 Signal not traveling far so decreased probability of it being weakened or lost

Front 69

Transmitting Long Distance Signals

Back 69

 Myelinated membranes
 Insulative features help to contain signal
 Saltatory conduction

Front 70

Saltatory Conduction

Back 70

 Nodes of Ranvier
 Small sections of unmyelinated axon
 Abundance of voltage-dependent gates
 Generate new action potentials
 Ensures signal keeps original strength
Constant regeneration of signals + insulation =
higher accuracy and precision, very fast signals
120m/sec

Front 71

Acetylcholine

Back 71

 One neurotransmitter secreted/used by both
divisions
 Many effector cells/tissues
 Only motor division (muscle) neurotransmitter
 Can have varied effects depending on what organ it is working on
- Slows activity of cardiac muscle while also exciting smooth muscle of digestive system

Front 72

Noepinephrine

Back 72

 Epinephrine – slightly different makeup, but same effect
 Also known as “adrenaline”
 Secreted largely by sympathetic nervous system to increase heart rate, available glucose etc…
 “Fight or Flight”

Front 73

Cerebrum

Back 73

 Largest part of brain
 Left and right hemispheres
 Highly folded to yield high surface
area
 Most “wrinkles” in humans
 Smarter?
 Regulation of body temperature, reproduction, eating, emotion
 Learning and memory

Front 74

Cerebellum

Back 74

 Left and right hemispheres
 Houses most of brain’s neurons
 Regulates motor coordination
 Tactile

 Spatial perception
 Can you “imagine or recall objects in 3D”?
 How do you read maps?
 Temporal perception
 Can you estimate how much time has passed?
 Combining types of perception
 Hand/eye coordination

Front 75

Brainstem

Back 75

 Medulla oblongata
 Shared pathway
 Regulates rhythms
 Pons
 Midbrain
 Reticular formation
 States of consciousness
 Habituation

Front 76

Spinal Cord

Back 76

Cervical nerves--thoracic nerves--lumbar nerves--sacral nerves---coccygeal nerves in that order from brainstem

Front 77

Somatic Nervous System

Back 77

 Voluntary movement
 Involuntary movement
 Reflexes
 Not spontaneous, require stimuli
 Automatic, stereotyped
 Response is predictable

Front 78

Autonomic Nervous System

Back 78

Self-governed

 Sympathetic nervous division
 Thoracic and lumbar region of spinal cord
 Accelerates
 Fight or flight
 Parasympathetic nervous division
 Brain, cervical and sacral region of spinal cord
 Decelerates
 Rest and Digest

Front 79

Difference between the Two

Back 79

Somatic nervous system includes all of the neural pathways (neurons) that result in voluntary actions, basically anything that you can tell your brain to do like move your arm or stick out your tongue. The autonomic nervous system includes all of the neural pathways that result in involuntary actions, like your brain telling your eyes to blink or your intestines to contract, basically anything that you cannot control.

Front 80

Parasympathetic

Back 80

* The parasympathetic nervous system activates tranquil functions, such as stimulating the secretion of saliva or digestive enzymes into the stomach.

Front 81

Sympathetic

Back 81

* The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the stimulation of activities that prepare the body for action, such as increasing the heart rate, increasing the release of sugar from the liver into the blood, and other generally considered as fight-or-flight responses (responses that serve to fight off or retreat from danger).

Front 82

Sensory System

Back 82

A sensory system consists of:
 sensory receptors
 neural pathways
 parts of the brain involved in sensory
perception.
A majority of the sensory systems are
conveyed to the brain through Cranial
Nerves (not spinal nerves).

Front 83

Signal Reception

Back 83

Range from single cells to complex sense
organs
Types of receptors
 Chemoreceptors
 Mechanoreceptors
 Photoreceptors
 Nociceptors
 Thermoreceptors

Front 84

Chemoreceptor

Back 84

 Use different types of chemoreceptors
 Smell (olfaction)
 Taste (gustation)

Front 85

none

Back 85

none