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111 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Liver is the Metabolic powerhouse in the body |
Drug Detoxification Glucose Regulation Bile Production Cholesterol Metabolism |
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Tight Junctions |
Do not allow the passage of materials extracellularly |
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Gap Junctions |
Allow transport between cells but are leakier than tight junctions |
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Aldosterone |
Conserves sodium and water, increasing fluid reabsorption and increasing blood volume/ pressure |
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Growth Hormone |
Increases protein synthesis and generalized cell functions |
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TSH |
promotes the synthesis and release of thyroid hormones |
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Pentose Pathway primary purpose |
The main purpose is to regenerate NAPH, so high levels of NADP+ (substrate) stimulate the pathway Don't confuse with NAD+, which is a product of the electron transport chain |
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Respiratory Cilia function |
Respiratory cilia are responsible for transporting mucous and trapped particles from the lungs to the pharynx by swallowing Damaged nonmotile cilia lead to decreased cough reflex (like in smokers) Alveoli do not contain cilia, thus cilia are not involved in gas exchange |
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Capillaries |
Primary site of gas exchange in the body Thin-walled, low pressure flow system Some endothelial turnover in response to injury or age NOT involved in muscular contraction |
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Stages of the Cell Cycle |
G1: cell doubles in size, new organelles produced, biochemical activity S: DNA synthesis/replication G2: continued growth and assembly of new organelles M: Mitosis/Cytokenesis |
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Heterozygote Advantage |
the tendency for the carrier of a dangerous condiition to have a survival advantage |
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Pyranoses vs Furanoses |
Pyranose: sugars composed of 6-membered ring Furanose: Sugars composed of 5 membered ring |
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Tertiary Structure and Protein Folding |
Protein Folding is most likely to be disrupted at the level of the Tertiary Structure Translation errors or mutations in the gene encoding the protein are most likely to effect the Primary and Secondary layers For the Quaternary level to be disrupted, there must be marathon one subunit |
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Inhibitor vs Agonist vs Antagonist |
Antagonist: causes a natural biological reaction to NOT occur Agonist: binds to cell receptors and mimics naturally occurring substances (agonist causes action while antagonist blocks the action of the agonist) Inhibitor: slows/interferes with chemical reaction, or binds to enzyme to decrease/suppress activity |
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DNA heavy light strands |
After one round of semi-conservative DNA replication, the old strain is heavy, and the new one is light. Melting DNA causes the H bonds holding the strands together to break, separating the two strands |
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Binary Fission |
Cell division and how bacteria replicate (remember than mitosis and meiosis are unique to eukaryotes) Binary Fission involves the newly synthesized copy of DNA being attached to the cell membrane, then the cell splits in half between the 2 copies of the DNA |
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What is the probability of two parents with AaBbCc having a child that is AABBCC? |
Look at each gene individually and do separate punnet squares. Then multiply the 3 probabilities AaxAa= 1/4 chance of AA this is the same for the other 2 genes 1/4 x 1/4 x 1/4 = 1/64 |
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Effect of Heat on Protein Structure |
Heat denatures proteins by disrupting its secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure Denaturation can also occur from high solute concentrations and the addition of detergents |
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Competitive, NonCompetitive and Uncompetitve Inhibition |
Competitive Inhibitors: Increase Km and Vmax unchanged Non Competitive Inhibitors: reduces enzyme activity while not changing the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate. Unchanged Km and Decreased Vmax Uncompetitive Inhibitor: inhibitor binds only to the E-S complex Decreases both Km and Vmax |
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Common Ancestry of Species |
In looking at common ancestry among species they are most unrelated when they have a branch point prior to that animal and another |
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5 Conditions necessary for Hardy Weinberg |
Large Population Population Isolated No mutations Random Mating No Natural Selection (ex: nat selection that selects against an allele because it is not advantageous to survivial) If any of the conditions for HW aren't met, evolution occurs |
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Myosin |
Myosin is the primary motor protein in muscle cells Mysoin hydrolyzes ATP, acting as an ATPase Myosin binds Actin. Actin has motor activity but does not hydrolyze ATP |
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Troponin |
Troponin is a complex of 3 regulatory proteins that is important for muscle contraction in skeletal and cardiac muscle Troponin is an actin chaperone Tropomyosin covers actin binding sites for myosin. When activated by calcium, troponin changes shape and removes tropomyosin from the binding sites Smooth muscle cells are not organized into sarcomeres |
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Acetylcholine and Skeletal Muscle Contraction |
Acetylcholine begins skeletal muscle contraction by binding to the receptors in the neuromuscular junction |
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Recombinant Frequencies |
The higher the frequency (50% as opposed to 30%) the further genes the are from one another 50% is the maximum recombinant frequency possible, for the genes furthest apart |
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Why are sperm mitochondrial DNA not found in fetal mitochondria? |
Although the sperm itself passes through the ovum, maternal organelles seek out and destroy paternal mitochondrial DNA (Note: this is different from viral DNA where it is incorporated into the nuclear DNA of the ovum) |
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Which comes first: mRNA binding to ribosomal subunits for translation or the ribosomal subunits assembling together first before mRNA binds? |
mRNA binds to the ribosomal subunits before they assemble |
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What typeof immunity is involved in vaccines? |
Active immunity of B-lymphocytes Vaccines cause the B-lymphocytes to produce memory B cells |
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Promoters |
Promoters are found in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes (Its the operons that are unique to bacteria) Promoters bind to RNA Polymerase during transcription |
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OOcyte vs Zygote vs Blastula vs Morula |
OOcyte is unfertilized eggs Zygote is the newly fertilized egg Morula is the solid ball of cells Blastula is the hollow ball of cells |
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DNA and Gel Electrophoresis |
The shortest fragments travel the furthest in gel electrophoresis In DNA the shorter fragments are the 5' end 3' are longer fragments |
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Fibroblasts differentiating into Epidermal Cells |
A growth factor is needed to induce development and differentiation of a fibroblast into an epidermal cell |
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Nucleolus |
The Nucleolus is involved in synthesizing ribosomes It contains RNA and protein |
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Epithelial Tissue |
One basic feature is that epithelial tissue have cell attachments to create one continuous layer on a basement membrane |
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Connective Tissue |
This is the tissue that produces extracellular matrix |
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Irreversible Inhibition |
Irreversible Inhibition generally requires a strong bond (especially a covalent bond Ex: disulfide bridges |
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Polymorphisms |
2 or more distinct phenotypes within the same species in the same population |
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7 transmembranes receptor = G protein coupled receptor |
cAMP and GTP involved in signaling cascade |
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Haversian Canal vs lacunae |
lacunae is the small empty space in mature bone as a result of cell death (osteoclasts) Haversian canals contain capillaries and nerves (lacunae do not) |
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Half-Life |
The point when 50% of the material has decayed At 2 half lives, 75% has decayed, 25% remains |
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Alpha Particle |
2 neutrons and 2 protons that get emitted from the nucleus If an eq undergoes alpha decay, should see minus 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Mass number decreases by 4. Losing the protons especially makes it a new element The eq has a Helium (2 proton) in it + the new element |
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Beta Decay |
Neutron emits an electron and therefore turns into a proton Mass number unchanged (proton increases and neutrons decrease) New element formed though |
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Positron Emission |
Proton emits a positron (e but with a positive charge) Proton turns into a neutron P goes down by one, n goes up by one mass unchanged Still new element |
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Gamma Decay |
Release high energy wave (gamma ray very high energy) Protons and neutrons reconfigure |
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BloodPressure Arteries vs Veins |
Arteries have higher blood pressure than veins |
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Bloods Pressure and Resistance |
Delta P = Q x R Q = blood flow (volume of blood/time) Q = Stroke volume x Heart Rate Q = Volume/beat x Beat/min= Volume/min |
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Blood Pressure Cardiac Output Total Peripheral Resistance |
Blood Pressure = Cardiac Output = Total Peripheral Resistance Blood Pressure = Psystolic - Pdiastolic |
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Intensity |
Intensity = Power/Area |
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Ketonuria |
Ketones are metabolic end products of fatty acid breakdown Excess excretion of ketone bodies in the urine indicating that the body is using fat as the main metabolic form of energy Characteristic of diabetes I or starvation when there is a shortage of glucose |
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MRI proton imaging |
Brighter image =More H+ The H+ are mainly found in water Bones have much less water than the eyes, muscle, and kidneys |
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How is an enzyme's Vmax physically altered? |
Enzyme kinetics shows that Vmax is altered by a change in tertiary structure of the enzyme |
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Zeff Effective Nuclear charge |
Z is the net positive charge of valence electrons based on the shielding electrons in lower energy levels Zeff = Atomic # - # Shielding Electrons Zeff increases UP and ACROSS |
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Parts of Skeletal Muscle Contraction that require ATP binding and/or ATP hydrolysis |
Dissociation of the Myosin Head from the Actin Filament requires ATP binding. Binding of the myosin Head to the actin filament requires Ca2+ and troponin/tropomyosin shift, not ATP. Binding of troponin does not require ATP either The conformational changes that move actin and myosin relative to one another require ATP hydrolysis The reuptake of Ca2+ into the sarcoplasmic reticulum requires ATP hydrolysis via the ATP pump that moves Ca2+ against its concentration gradient |
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Endothelial cells vs platelets and mature Red Blood Cells |
Endothelial Cells have nuclei but platelets and mature Red blood cells do not have nuclei. Platelets are cell fragments while the other two are obviously cells All three are bone-marrow derived |
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Phosphatase |
A phosphatase is a type of hydrolase that involves cleaving (removing) phosphate bonds, using water to cleave a molecule of inorganic phosphate |
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Retrograde transport |
A type of reverse transport where proteins from the Golgi are returned to the endoplasmic reticulum |
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Does mRNA processing (post-transcriptional modification) occur in prokaryotes? |
Nope. Prokaryotes do not process the mRNA like Eukaryotes do. Its transcription also occurs in the cytoplasm (no nucleus) and ribosomes can immediately bind to it and begin translation |
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Cyctochrome C in ox phos is a ___ electron carrier (give a number) |
Cytochrome C is a 1 electron carrier as it toggles between the ferrous and ferric state, where only single electron transfers are possible |
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How do you know whether a DNA primer is suitable for PCR? |
Suitable Primers for PCR have HIGH GC content G and C base pairs near their 3' and 5' ends |
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Nondisjunction |
Nondisjunction is the failure of separation -of homologous chromosomes during Anaphase I of Meiosis OR -of sister chromatids during Anaphase II of Meiosis |
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What is the relationship between primary protein structure and protein misfolding? |
Mistranslation of codons can lead to incorporation of the incorrect amino acids into the protein sequence. This incorrect sequence most likely leads to protein misfolding |
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Euchromatin vs Heterocrhomatin (which is more readily available for transcription?) |
Euchromatin is the looser chromatin that is more readily accessible for transcription. Thus if a certain gene is expressed continuously, it is more likely to be found in euchromatin. |
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Which 3 amino acids contain 2 nitrogen atoms but are neutral at pH 7? |
Asparagine, Tryptophan and Glutamine Note that others may have 2 N atoms but are not neutral |
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In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactate in the cytoplasm In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is transported to the mitochondria to be converted to Acetyl CoA for entry into the Citric Acid Cycle |
yep |
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Base Pair Percentage Problem |
A% = %T and %G = %C (A+A) + (G+G) or (A+T) + (C+G) = 100% |
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Carbonic Anhydrase |
Carbonic Anhydrase catalyzes the reaction: CO2+ H2O = H2CO3 (which then dissociates to H+ and HCO3-) With an inhibitor to carbonic anhydrase, CO2 will build up in the cells |
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Veins vs Arteries with CO2 |
Veins carry higher CO2 levels than Arteries |
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What does Proline disrupt? |
Proline disrupts secondary structure, specifically disrupting alpha helices |
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An inhibitor and Km |
A competitive inhibitor itself should have a lower Km than that of the substrate and enzyme Dont confuse this with the fact that a competitive inhibitor increases Km for substrate and enzyme. Looking at the inhibitor itself, its helpful if it has a lower Km and thus greater binding affinity. The lowest Km possible, the better |
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Exonuclease vs Endonuclease vs Protease |
Endonucleases cleave nucleotides in the middle of DNA molecules Exonucleases cleave nucleotides at the end of DNA molecules Proteases cleave proteins at their peptide bonds as a part of proteolysis Ribonuclease cleaves RNA (at ribose phosphate) |
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From which germ layer is the mouth derived from |
The mouth is derived from the invagination of the ectoderm The stomach, bladder, and bronchi are all derived from endoderm, as well as most epithelial tissue (line the cavity and surfaces of blood vessels and organs) |
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Mutations that occur in somatic cells are not passed to children, only if it is a mutation in a germ line cell |
mhmm |
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Chaperone protein |
Chaperone proteins provent protein-heat shock and assist in proper protein folding, and prevent protein aggregates |
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How to reduce activity of neurons |
One way to reduce neuron activity would be to increase the threshold required for excitation, because it would decrease the chance that individual neurons would fire, and reduce the overall excitation that spreads |
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The filtrate from the glomerulus is most concentrated at which point in the kidney |
The filtrate is most concentrated in the medullary portion of the collecting duct |
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In neuron action potentials, what is the function of the Na+/K+ ATPase |
The Na+/K+ ATPase functions to restore resting membrane potential by moving the Na+ and K+ ions against their concentration gradients With each ATP hydrolyzed, the Na+ K+ ATPase pump also pumps 3Na+ out and K+ into the cell to restore the negative membrane potential |
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What exactly do transcription factors do? |
Transcription factors bind DNA at the promoter region and recruit RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter as well to begin transcription |
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any pump that has ATPase activity does what to ATP? |
An ATPase pump uses active transport to transport molecules but it does so with ATP hydrolysis activity ATP->ADP+Pi |
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How does the first step in glomerular filtration occur |
The initial filtration step in the glomerulus occurs via passive transport as blood pressure forces the fluid from the glomerulus into the lumen of the Bowman's capsule. |
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Protein levels and concentrations are most directly related to levels of ___ |
An increase in protein level most directly stems from an increase in mRNA levels |
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If a cell is arrested so it can't divide but can metabolically function normally, what phase is it likely in |
If arrested from cell division but otherwise normal, it is in Interphase, which is between cell divisions and where the cell obtains nutrients, grows, reads DNA and carries out other normal cell functions. Interphase = G1+S+G2 basically everything but Mitosis |
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Erythrocytes do not contain nuclei or DNA |
Since mature erythrocytes have lost their nuclei to make room for the Hemoglobin, erythrocytes do not contain any DNA either |
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Viruses can only reproduce in a host cell, and are therefore obligate intracellular parasites |
They need the host cell machinery to replicate their DNA and grow |
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Do bacteria have Telomeres? |
No, bacteria do not have telomeres like eukaryotes This is because bacterial DNA is circular, and thus does not have the repetitive, non-coding nucleotide sequences (telomeres) like eukaryotes |
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A phosphodiester bond is a bond between a sugar and a phosphate group |
A prime example of a phosphodiester bond is that which connects nucleotides of DNA on the same strand |
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What is the Endomembrane System? |
The endomembrane system is the compartmentalization of cell function into different organelles The endomembrane system includes: endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi, vesicles, nuclear membrane, lysosomes, endosomes and the cell membrane |
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What are symptoms and non-symptoms of diabetes |
With high blood glucose levels, diabetes patients excrete excess sugar/glucose and would have sweet-tasting urine Diabetes people use breakdown of fatty acids and protein as alternate sources of energy, since lacking or not responding to the insulin that would lead to glycogen production. Thus diabetes patients might experience weight loss from all this breakdown, but they would also have a frequent appetite |
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At pH 1 amino groups R-NH2 will be protected to R-NH3+ (+) charge Between pH 2-7 we're above the pKa of carboxylic acids (2) so COOH will deprotenate to COO- (NH3+ remains charged b/c its pKA is 9-10) zwitterion |
Around pH 10 the amino group will be deprotenated, and the COO- remains deprotenated (NH2 natural now) overall (-) charge + --> +/- --> - pH = pKA at half equiv point pH = PI at equivalence point |
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The Michaelis-Menten Equation |
v = vmax [S] / (Km + [S]) |
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Epimer |
Epimers are a subtype of diastereomers that differ my exactly 1 chiral carbon Anomers differ at the anomeric carbon (C1) of sugar- alpha or beta |
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terpenes are precurosors to steroids and other lipid signaling molecules Cholesterol is a steroid hormone precursor |
Vitamins A D E and K are fat-soluble A; carotene for vision D: Ca and P homeostasis E: antioxidants (aromaticity destroys free radicals) K: blood clotting |
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Saponification is the ester hydrolysis of triacylglycerols using a strong base (lye aka NaOH or KOH) |
Southern Blotting indicates the presence of a desired sequence using a probe with some sort of indicator protein or radioisotope |
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DNA+ histones = chromatin Euchromatin is looser, transcriptionally active Topoisomerase creates nicks in the DNA to relieve tension from supercoiling |
Single-Stranded binding proteins prevent the unwound DNA from re-annealing |
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DNA is double stranded, RNA is single stranded MORE G-C content is used for extra structural stability because of more hydrogen bonding |
Prokaryotic DNA doesn't have nucleosomes (DNA+histones) Only eukaryotic DNA has histones |
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AUG is start codon for AA Methionine Third base position is the wobble |
3 Stop Codons: UAG UGA UAA genetic code is degenerate (silent in wobble position) so that mutations don't always result in altered structure Point mutations: Missense and Nonsense (premature stop codon) also called truncation |
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3 main postranscriptional processing: intron/exon splicing 5' cap 3' poly A tail |
Inducible systems: normally bound to repressor need inducer to bind to repressor to prevent repressor from binding ex: lac operon Repressible systems: allow constant production of protein product. The repressor is normally inactive until it binds to a corepressor to stop transcription |
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Histone acetylation allows for waking of DNA- histone interaction and therefore opens the chromatin up for easier access to DNA transcription |
DNA methylases add methyl groups to silence gene expression Heterochromatin regions of DNA are more heavily methylated |
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RNA Polymerase II binds to the TATA box within the promoter region of the gene hnRNA is the initial un-modified mRNA that was transcribed |
spliceosome uses nRNA and snRNPs to splice introns alternative splicing involves combining different eons together to acquire different gene products: eukaryotes use this to increase genetic variability |
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resting membrane potential is between -40 and -80mV, rises to +35mV during depolarization |
outer mitochondrial membrane is highly permeable to metabolic molecules and small proteins The inner membrane is selective and actually doesn't contain cholesterol; contains enzymes for e-transport |
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Bacteriophages: Lytic cycle involves lysis of bacterial cell from bacteriophage progeny virulent can go to lysogenic cycle |
Lysogenic cycle: virus becomes part of host genome and replicates with the bacteria can return to lytic cycle provirus or prophage |
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Prions: misfolding protein alpha helix to less soluble beta sheet protein aggregates form |
njn |
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nucleolus: subsection of nucleus where ribosomal RNA is made mitochondria can divide independent of the nucleus via binary fission mitochondria can trigger apoptosis by releasing mitochondrial enzymes into cytoplasm |
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes to break down substances ingested by endocytosis and cell's waste products; autolysis of cell if enzymes are released peroxisomes: contain H2O2 and involved in long chain fatty acid B-oxidation; also involved in phospholipid synthesis and the Pentose phosphase Pathway |
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Rough ER has ribosomes to permit translation of proteins destined for secretion Smooth ER: lipid synthesis and detoxification Golgi: modifying, packaging directing to specific cell locations |
Microfilaments made of actin; structural protection; w/ myosin can cause muscle contraction; cleavage furrow Microtubules made of tubulin; pathways for motor proteins like myosin, chines and dyne cilia, flagella centrioles: microtubule organization in mitotic spindle |
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Intermediate filaments: cell-cell adhesion, structural integrity of cytoskeleton Ex: keratin |
Endothelial: line blood vessels, interface between blood vessel wall and blood Epithelial broader; lining cavities; form the parenchyma-functional parts of organs |
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Connective tissue: support the body and provide framework for epithelial tissue secrete materials to form extracellular matrix ex: bone, cartilage, ligaments, fat tissue, BLOOD |
gram + = thick peptidoglycan cell wall gram - = thin pep cell wall and cell membrane Bacterial plasmids can integrate into bacterial genome, and when they do they are called episomes |
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transposons: genetic elements that can insert into or remove themselves from bacterial genome transduction: transfer or genetic material using a bacteriophage |
transformation: acquire genetic material from environment and integrate into bacterial genome conjugation: bacterial-bacterial genetic material transfer via conjugation bridge; transferring plasmids from F+ to F- bacteria Bacterial growth: lag phase, exponential phase, stationary phase, death phase |
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Viral RNA positive sense: can be translated by host cell negative sense: need complementary strand to be synthesized using RNA replicase and then translated |
Mitosis: 2 genetically identical daughter cells Meiosis: 4 unidentical haploid cells (gametes) -Synapsis occurs in Prophase1: homolog interwine: 4 chromosome tetrad and crossing over: law independent assortment -anaphase 1 is law of segregation Meiosis 2: not really special = identical mitosis 1 |
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Spermatoagonium- After S phase: primary spermatocytes- after Meiosis 1: secondary spermatocytes After Meiosis 2: spermatids After maturation: spermatozoa in eggs: uneven cytokinesis leads to polar body |
GnRH---> FSH and LH FSH: follicle development LH: stimulates ovulation these hormones stimulate estrogen and progesterone |
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Follicular Phase: GnRH stimulates FSH and LH causing follicle development. Estrogen released Ovulation: egg is released from follicle Luteal Phase: ruptured follicle becomes the Corpus Luteum, which produces progesterone to maintain endometrium High estrogen and progesterone cause negative feedback to GnRH Menses: shedding of endometrial lining |
hCG is LH analog after fertilization to maintain the corpus luteum Menopause: ovaries stop making estrogen and progesterone Zygote becomes embryo after first cleavage |
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Ectoderm becomes epidermis; hair, nervous system, mouth, anal canal sense of eye "attract o derm" Mesoderm: musculoskeletal, circulatory, and excretory systems connective tissue Endoderm: lining of respiratory + digestive system; pancreas, thyroid, bladder, distal urinary tracts |
Neurulation: nervous system formation notochord induces neural folds--> neural groove form neural tube = central nervous system |
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Totipotent: capable of differentiating into all cell types:3 germ layers and placental structures Pluripotent: all germ layers and derivatives (no placental) Multipotent: only can do a specific subset of cell types |
hjh |
