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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is ATP
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Molecules that provide energy to do cell work (like charged battery)
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Why do we need to eat?
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To get chemical energy to do work in our cells and to get building materials to make new cells and cell parts
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What is cellular respiration?
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Metabolic process that captures the chemical energy from foods in the form of ATP
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How is it different than breathing?
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Breathing is taking air into your lungs and expelling CO2
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What types of cells undergo cellular respiration?
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all cells
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What is glycolysis?
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It breaks apart glucose
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How many ATP's are produced from glycolysis?
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2 ATPS
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Where does anaerobic respiration start?
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Cytoplasm
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How many net ATPs are produced by the end of the pathway in anaerobic respiration?
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2
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Is oxygen needed?
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No
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Where does aerobic respiration start?
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Mitochondria
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How many net ATP's are produced by the end of the pathway in aerobic respiration?
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36
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Is oxygen needed?
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Yes
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Compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
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Anaerobic: occurs in cytoplasm, produces 2 ATPs, no oxygen required, used for short-term needs. Aerobic: occurs in mitochondria, produces 36 ATPs, oxygen required, used for long-term needs
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Write the equation for aerobic respiration
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Glucose + O2 = CO2 + H2O + Energy
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When you are running a marathon, which respiration pathway do you depend on?
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Aerobic
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When you suddenly jump out of your chair, which respiration pathway do you depend on?
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Anaerobic
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What is global warming?
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The rising average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere and oceans and it’s related effects
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What is the greenhouse effect? Is the greenhouse effect “bad” for the Earth?
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Thermal radiation is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gasses and is re-radiated in all directions. No
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How is global warming influenced by the greenhouse effect?
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More heat is trapped with more CO2, and Earth’s temperature rises when there is more CO2 in the atmosphere
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What are common greenhouse gases?
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Methane and Nitrous Oxide
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Why are policy makers mostly concerned about carbon dioxide (CO2)?
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CO2 levels have increased tremendously and will continue to rapidly increase → warmer temperatures → bad!
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What is the biosphere?
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Is made up of all living things
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What are natural ways the oceans and biosphere use and release carbon dioxide?
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Photosynthesis uses CO2, Respiration releases CO2
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Does the ocean and biosphere absorb all of the human-made CO2?
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No
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What are fossil fuels?
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They are formed by buried, dead organisms (fossil). Burning them provides a lot of energy (fuels)
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Considering the chemical reaction of gasoline and oxygen, explain how burning fossil fuels puts CO2 into the atmosphere
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As fossil fuels are made up of Carbon and Hydrogen. This burns in oxygen to form Carbon dioxide and Water, so the carbon dioxide is released into the air. When Carbon is burned it reacts with Oxygen. Carbon dioxide is created and released into our air.
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What are current carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere?
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390 ppm
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How are today’s carbon dioxide levels (ppm) abnormal from the cycles of the last 420,000 years?
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The present level of CO2 is much higher than it has been. Different than all the natural cycles of the last 420,000 years
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How much has the Earth warmed in the last 100 years?
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1.3°F
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How much temperature change is normal over a scale of 1,000 years? Why do scientists consider the recent warming (over the last 100 years) to be abnormal?
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Temperature change in 1,000 years should be 1.3°F. It’s abnormal because it has risen that much in just 100 years.
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Comparing real temperature data to a model, how do scientists know that their complex models for global warming are accurate?
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Data from CO2 bubbles trapped in ice from the Antarctic
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Describe some of the scientific research that contributes to global warming science.
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Assesses peer reviewed & published scientific literature. Backed by the worldwide scientific community. Experts from 19 different countries
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Understand the scientific consensus regarding global warming. Why is it valuable to have scientific consensus regarding global warming?
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Since 2007, no scientific body has maintained a different opinion on global warming
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What are the current effects of global warming? What effects could occur in the future?
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Weather, Ice Caps and Oceans, Human Health, and Wildlife. These could keep getting worse.
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How does global warming affect weather patterns? Use evidence to justify your answer.
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Catastrophic weather – hurricanes are fueled by warm ocean temperatures and cause severe drought
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Describe situations in which global warming affects living organisms. Use evidence to justify your answer.
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Forest and Bark Beetles – have been destroying millions of forests in Alaska. Warm weather allows beetles to mature and breed faster. Wildlife also tries to adjust behavior: birds lay eggs earlier, plants flower earlier, hibernating animals wake up earlier.
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Describe coral bleaching. How do corals photosynthesize although they are animals?
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Coral has algae living within it. Provides glucose from photosynthesis to coral
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Explain how melting of polar glaciers / ice caps has affected ocean levels (and will continue to do so). How could these melting affect future ocean currents (think about the PBS Video watched out of class)?
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The more ice caps and glaciers that melt, the higher the ocean level will be. If they continue to melt, the ocean level will continue to rise.
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How does global warming negatively influence human health?
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Weather-related mortality (more heat-related deaths in warmer countries), Infectious disease, respiratory disease (air quality)
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What diseases are perpetuated by a warmer global climate?
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Mosquitos and rodents
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What international efforts are planned reduce human impact on global climate? U.S. efforts? Mizzou’s efforts?
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“Green Climate Fund” for poor countries to finance reduction in emissions. Committed to reducing emissions to 17% below 2005 levels by 2020. Installing a new biomass boiler
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Which countries contribute most to carbon dioxide emissions?
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United States
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Understand the relationship between turning the lights off and reducing CO2 in the atmosphere.
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Turning the lights off uses less energy which will reduce the CO2 level
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What are actions can you do to save money AND reduce your carbon emissions at the same time?
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Reduce car use, Unplug and turn off, Drink smart, Recycle, Use cloth bags. Buy used, Use different light bulbs
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What is difference between influenza, stomach flu and a cold?
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Influenza: Caused by an influenza virus. Stomach Flu: Have a fever, headache, ache/fatigue, and exhaustion. Cold: Stuffy nose, sore throat, sneezing
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Can you get the flu from a flu shot?
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No. It takes up to 2 weeks for the flu shot to work. After getting the shot, there may be side symptoms which people may think is the flu, but it’s not
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Understand that influenza can be a life-threatening disease that affects people of all ages.
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understand
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Explain why flu shots should be given annually
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Flu viruses slightly change from year to year which is a mutation called antigenic drift. A person may have little immunity to the mutated form of the virus, which calls for a shot annually.
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Understand how new strains of influenza arise – antigenic drift vs antigenic shift.
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Small mutations in the protein makers or antigens occur over time. Abrupt, major change in virus surface protein makers
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What is the difference between the flu shot and FluMist?
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Flu shot-Called killed virus vaccine, 3 different flu virus strains are grown in eggs, heat or chemicals are used to kill virus, antigens remain on surface of virus to stimulate immune system. Avoid flu shot if you have an egg allergy.
FluMist-Contains live, weakened form of 3 different flu viruses which stimulates an immune response, attenuated-weak form of live virus, also grown in eggs, can be given to healthy individuals. |
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Make sure to understand the different symptoms of the flu verses a cold
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Flu-Fever, headache, ache/fatigue, exhaustion
Cold-No fever, no headache, no ache/fatigue |
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Why do you need to get a flu shot in advance of “flu season”
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It takes a few weeks to get into your system to immunize. It also wouldn’t help you to get a flu shot after you’ve been exposed to the flu.
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Be familiar with the prevention steps in regards to the flu.
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Cover nose and mouth when cough or sneeze, Wash hands, Don’t touch face, Avoid sick people, Stay home if you have flu symptoms
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What is the role of DNA in our cells?
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Instructions for a cell’s structure and function
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Where is DNA found in our cells?
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Found in the nucleus
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Describe the relationship between DNA, nucleotide, gene, chromosome, and genome
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• Wound around proteins called histones to make a chromosome
o “Words in the recipe” • Basic unit of the DNA structure • Section of DNA that codes for a protein o “One recipe in the cook book” • Thread line strands of condensed DNA and proteins o “One cook book” • All of an organisms DNA in one cell o “Shelf of cook books” • Genome → chromosome → gene → DNA → Protein |
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What is the monomer of DNA called?
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Nucleotide
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What are the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA?
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• Adenine (A)
• Thymine (T) • Cytosine (C) • Guanine (G) |
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What is complementary base pairing? A pairs with _____, and C pairs with _____.
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T and G
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What part of a DNA strand contains the genetic code? Sugar? Phosphate? Bases?
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gene?
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What is a gene?
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Section of DNA that codes for a protein
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How many genes do humans have? What is the average length of a gene?
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• 25,000-30,000
• 3,000 bases long |
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What is the relationship between a gene and a protein?
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The gene is a part of the protein. It’s the section of DNA that codes for the protein
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What is a chromosome? How many chromosomes do humans have in their normal body cells?
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• Thread line strands of condensed DNA and proteins
• 46 |
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What is replication? How does it work?
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• “Copying”
• Enzymes unzip the DNA in sections, Enzymes add new nucleotides to the unzipped sections of DNA, when nucleotides are added A pairs with T and G pairs with C, Enzymes connect the new nucleotides |
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Why is replication referred to as semi-conservative?
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After each replication, half of each strand is old and half is new
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What is a mutation? What is a single point mutation?
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• Permanent changes in DNA
• A single base change in the DNA |
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Describe some of the mutagens described in class.
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Mutation causers, and cancer-causing substances
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Are tans healthy?
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NO
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What effect does UVA have on your skin? What effect does UVB have on your skin? What effect can UV have on your DNA? What is the difference between UVA and UVB?
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• Leads to premature aging, sagging and wrinkling
• Causes sunburns and suntans |
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What is melanoma?
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The most lethal type of skin cancer. It develops in the melanocytes
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How can you protect yourself from the sun?
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Wear sunscreen, covering clothing, hats, etc.
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What are the ABCDs of detecting melanoma?
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• A-asymmetry
• B – Borders • C – Color • D – Diameter |
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When is mutation a good thing?
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Source of variation in a population
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Be able to draw DNA, chromosomes and genes and show how these structures are physically related to each other.
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*
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Do all your body cells have the same genes? Explain your reasoning
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No. Different cells have different genes
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Explain the concept of gene expression, include enhancers and repressors
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• When a gene is turned on and a protein is made
• Turned on by enhancers • Turned off by repressors |
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What does it mean when a gene is expressed?
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It helps the cell adapt to changes in the environment
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What are the base pairs of RNA and how is this different from DNA?
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• A,U,C, and G.
• A,T,C, and G |
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What are some differences between RNA and DNA?
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• Double helix, 2 strands are complementary (G with C, T with A) DNA codes for everything.
• Single stranded, but A is paired with U |
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What are the different types of RNA and describe their functions
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• mRNA
• rRNA • tRNA |
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Make sure that you can understand the big picture of how DNA, RNA and proteins fit together.
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*
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What is sickle cell anemia and what causes it.
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When your body produces abnormally shaped red blood cells
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Know the phases in the cell cycle. Be able to draw and label the cell cycle.
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• G1 = Cell contents duplicated
• S = Chromosomes duplicated • G2 = Double checks for errors • M = Cell growth stops |
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Where and how does transcription occur? What is the product of transcription?
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• DNA strand separates
• Enzyme pairs DNA with free RNA nucleotides (read as complimentary base pairs) • mRNA strand detaches • DNA strands zip back up • RNA moves out of nucleus through pore o RNA = product |
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Where does translation occur? What molecules/structures are involved in translation?
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• mRNA attaches to a ribosome
• tRNA binds to correct amino acid • tRNA binds to mRNA • Ribosome moves • Another amino acid binds to another tRNA • The tRNA binds to the mRNA • The 2 amino acids bind together • Process continues until entire mRNA is read o In reality, one mRNA will have many ribosomes; each ribosome is making the same amino acid chain |
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What is the product of translation?
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Amino acid chain
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Given the DNA strand: ATGTGTGGATCAACTTAA, what is the complementary strand of DNA? What is the mRNA strand? Make sure to be familiar with the mRNA codon/Amino Acid chart. *Note* if we put a question concerning the chart, it will be provided for you. DON’T spend time memorizing it
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*
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How does the disease sickle cell anemia affect every level of organization in biology?
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• Molecular Level
o Single point mutation in the beta hemoglobin gene • → mutated gene: T base instead of an A base o Sickle protein has 1 amino acid different from normal protein • → Valine instead of Glutamic Acid o Valine has different chemical properties • → Valine is neutral • → Glutamic Acid as a negative charge o When oxygen is released from sickle hemoglobin, the valine spot in chain becomes sticky o Result: hemoglobin chains stick together • Cell Level o Cell becomes cut stiff and sickle shaped o Die after 10 days; normal lives longer • → Sickle RBC’s stick together and clog capillaries • Organ Level o Without oxygen part of organs die • → If it happens to the brain = stroke • → infection can occur • Organism Level o Chronic Anemia, jaundice o Pain episodes, “crisis” o Higher risk of stroke o Infections and vision problems o Shortened life expectancy • Population Level o Among African Americans 1 in 12 are carriers and the disease occurs in about 1 in 50 |
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What is the difference between a single point mutation and a reading frame mutation?
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• Single base change in the DNA
• 1 or 2 bases are added or deleted |
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Why does deleting or adding a base typically have a greater effect than substituting a base in DNA?
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Changes all of the codons and will most likely form a nonfunctional protein
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Are mutations always bad? Why or why not?
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• No, mutations can result in new proteins being made
o Source of variation in population o Without variation, evolution could not occur |
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How does our body deal with a mutation in our DNA?
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We have repair enzymes that remove some mistakes
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What is the difference between chromatin and chromosomes? What form is the DNA in when it is being duplicated for DNA replication? During protein synthesis? Cellular division?
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• M phase of cell cycle → extra DNA or missing DNA = lethal condition
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What is mitosis? Why is mitosis important? What is the end product?
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• Divides the chromosomes in the cell nucleus
• Vital process in the growth and development in our bodies • End product: 2 identical somatic (body) cells |
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What are sister chromatids? Are they genetically identical?
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• Two identical copies of chromatid connected by a centromere
• YES (count # of chromosomes by number of centromeres) |
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Summarize the process of mitosis.
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• Arranged in chromosomes
• 2 identical cells → the duplicated chromosomes line up in the middle and the sister chromatids are pulled apart (by spindle fibers) The DNA is equally divided. • Take place in DNA nucleus → the rest of the body • Cytokinesis occurs → cytoplasm in the organelles are roughly divided into halves • End result: 2 identical somatic (body) cells |
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What happens in the Go Phase?
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The cell no longer divides
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Distinguish between what happens to chromosomes during S phase of the cell cycle versus mitosis.
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DONT FUCKING KNOW
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Which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes separate? What phase does DNA replicate?
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• Chromosomes separate: mitosis
• DNA replicates: S phase (synthesis) |
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What are telomeres and why are they important?
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• Caps on the ends of the chromosomes
• Prevent DNA from unraveling and keep chromosomes from sticking together |
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What do telomeres have to do with aging and the cell cycle?
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• Every time the cell divides, the telomeres shorten
• When telomeres become too short, the cell stops dividing |
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Is the diagnosis of cancer increasing or decreasing in the US? Why? What about deaths from cancer?
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• Fewer people are getting cancer
• Fewer people are dying from cancer • Early detection, better treatment, lower smoking rates |
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What is cancer and how does it relate to the cell cycle and checkpoints?
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• Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells due to a loss of cell cycle control
• In normal cells, the cell cycle has checkpoints to control cell division |
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What does a tumor suppressor gene do? What does a proto-oncogene do? What happens when there is a mutation in these genes?
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• Suppress (stop) cell division → if mutated, cells don’t stop at checkpoint
• Start cell division intermittently → if mutated, cell divides continuously |
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What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors?
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• Tumors are not cancerous (ex. Warts)
• Cancerous and can spread to other parts of body (metastasis) |
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Why is cancer generally a disease of older people?
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Had more time around environmental factors → smoking, chemicals, radiation, diet
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What are some things we can do to lessen the risk of getting cancer?
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Avoid tobacco, limit alcohol, protection from sunlight, diet, skin screening, pap smears, mammograms, and colonoscopies
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What can we do to treat cancer? Why are some of the treatments so harmful to us?
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• Surgery: cut out tumor
• Radiation • Chemotherapy • Targeted Therapies • Nanotechnology Delivery of Drugs, X-rays |
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What is meiosis? What is the goal of meiosis? Where in the body does it occur?
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a. Cell division that produces sex cells
b. Create 4 haploid sex cells from 1 diploid cell |
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Why does meiosis occur? What is the advantage of sexual reproduction?
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Create 4 haploid cells (sex cells) from one diploid cell
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What type and how many cells does meiosis produce? Genetically, how are these cells different from the cells produced by mitosis?
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a. Sex cells → 23
b. 4 cells with 2 chromosomes each |
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Be able to compare similarities and differences between meiosis and mitosis.
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*
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What do the terms haploid and diploid refer to? (what are we counting when we determine haploid/diploid)? What is the difference between a diploid cell and a haploid cell?
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a. Haploid 1N only 1chromosome for each homologous pair
b. Diploid 2N homologous pair |
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Be able to determine a haploid cell from a diploid cell when given the full number of chromosomes for the organism
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*
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What are homologous chromosomes? Why do these chromosomes pair together? In what type of cell (haploid/diploid) can homologous pairs be created? Are chromosomes always found in pairs within this type of cell?
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a. Physically similar chromosomes which pair up during synapsis
b. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the mother, the other form the father c. Homologous pair share genes d. Diploid Cells e. No both diploid and haploid |
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Watch
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life's greatest miracle
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