Bio 122 Midterm, Photosynth, Body, Celluar Respiration

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Suspension Feeders

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Extract food particles suspended in surrounding water

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Substrate feeders

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live in or on thier food source and eat their way through it

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Fluid Feedera

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obtain food by sucking nutrient rich fluids from a living host

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Ingestion : 1st step of food processing

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The act of eating

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Digestion : 2nd stage of Food processing

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The breaking down of foodinto molecules small enough for the body to absorb, First the food may be mechanically broken into smaller piecesm ( ie chewing ) Then the second phase is chemical breakdown process called hydrolysis.

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Absorption : 3rd Stage of Food Processing

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The cells lining the digest tract absorb the products of digestion, small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars

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Elimination : 4th stage of Food processing

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Undigest material passes out of the digestive tract

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A protien Polymer's monomer is

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Amino Acids

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A polysaccharide / Disaccharide 's monomer is

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Monosaccharides

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A Nucleic Acid's monomer is

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Nucleotides

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Phagocytosis

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When food a cell engulfs food and a newly formed vacuole fuses with lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes

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Gastrovascular cavity

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A digestive compartment with a single opening, a mouth

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Alimentary Canal

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A digestive tube with two openings, a mouth and anus

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Order of the Digestive Tract

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Oral cavity ( Contains Tongue and salivary Glands ) / Pharynx / Esophagus / Cardiac Sphincter / Stomach / Pyloric Sphincter / Duodenum / Small Intestine / Large intestine . Rectum / Anus

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Saliva as a form of Chemical digestion

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It contains a slippery glycoprotein that protects the soft lining of the mouth and lubricates food for easier swallowing. Buffers neutralize food acids, helping prevent tooth decay. It also contains salivary amylase a digestive enzyme that hydrolizes starch.

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Gastric Juice

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Secrted by the stomach, is made up of mucus, enzymes and strong acid. Which functions is to break apart the cells in food

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Gastric Gland

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have three types of cells that secrete differant componets of the gastric juice. Mucous cells secrete mucus, which lubricates and protects the stomach walla, Parietal cells secret HCL, and chief cells secret pepsinogen,

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Hcl converts Pesinogen to

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Pesin

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Pesin activates

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more pepsinogen, starting a chain reaction, it begins the chemical digestion of protiens

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Pancreas

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Produces pancreatic juice, a mixture of digestive enzymes and an alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate. The alkaline solutoin neutralizes acid chyme as it enters the small intestine.

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Starch is broken down by pancreatic amylase into maltose, maltose is broken down by maltase into monosaccharides

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Polypeptides are broken down by trypsin, into smaller polypetied that ar inturn broken dwon by aminopeptidase into amino acids

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DNA and RNA are broken down by Nucleasses into nucleotides which are broken down by other enzymes to nitrogenous bases, sugars and phosphates

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Fat globules are broken down by bile saltes into fat droplets that broken down by lipase into fatty acids and glycerol

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What does the liver convert excess Carbs and protiens into

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Fats

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Essential Nutrients

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Are materials that must be obtained in preassembled form because the animals cells cannot make them from any raw material

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Essential fatty acids

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Are fatty acids that the body can not create

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amino acids synthesis

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Protiens

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Vitamin

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Is an organic nutrient that we must obtain from our diet, but is required in much smaller quantities than the essential amino acids. Most vitamins serve as coenzymes or parts of coenzymes; they have catalytic functions and are used over and over in metabolic reactions.

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Minerals

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are simple inorganic nutrients, usually requited in small amounts. We must acquire the essential minerals. humans require relatively large amounts of calcium and phosphorus to contruct and maintain our skelton

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Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs)

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Generally correlate with a tendency to develop blocked blood vessels, high blood pressure and consequent heart attacks

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High Density Lipoproteins (HDLs)

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may decrease the risk of vessel blockage, perhaps because they convey blood cholesterol to the live where it is broken down

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Breathing : 1st stage of gas exchange

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O2 diffses across the cells lining and lungs into surrounding blood vessles, Co2 does the same

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Transportation : 2nd stage of Gas exchange

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02 now attaches to hemoglobin in the red blood cells and is carried from the lungs to the body while CO2 does the opposite

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Exchange : 3rd stage of Gas exchange

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The body cells take up o2 from the blood and release co2 to the blood. This is o2 is required for cells to obtain energy from food molecules.

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Human Respiratory system

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Nasal Cavity / Pharynx / Larynx / Traches / Bronchus / Bronchiles/ Alveoli

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What does the chest do during inhlation

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Both the rib cage and chest cavity expand, and lungs follow suit. The ribs move upward and the rib cage expands as muscles, the diaphragm cotnracts, moving downward and expanding the chevt cavity as it goes.

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What does the chest do during exhaltion

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The rib muscles and diaphragm both relax, decreasing the volume of the rib cage and chest cavity, forcing air out of the lungs

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Vital Capacity

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The maximum volume of air that we can inhale and exhale during forced breathing

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Breathing Control Center

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Located in the pons and the medulla oblongata

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Every hemoglobin can hold how many oxygen molecules

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4

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CO2 + H2o = H2CO3 = H + HCO3

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Hemoglobin unloading and loading of O2

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Formula for Cellular Respiration

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C6H12O6 + 02 = 6[CO2] + 6[H20] + ATP


Glucose + oxygen = 6 Carbon dioxide + 6 Water + Energy

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Cellular Respiration : Stage 1 : Glycoysis

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Occurs in the cytoplasmic fluid of the cell, that is, outside the organeles. Glycolysis begins respiration by breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound call pyruvate

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Cellular Respiration : Stage 2 : Citric Acid Cycle

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Takes place with in the mitochondria, completes the breakdown of gluceose by decomposing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide. The cell makes a small amount of ATP during glcolysis and the citric acid cycle. The main function how ever is to supply the third stage with electrons

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Cellular Respiration : Stage 3 : Oxidative Phosphorylation

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Involves the electron transport chain and a process known as chemiosmosis. NADH and a related electron carrier, FADH2, shuttle electrons to the electron transport chain. Most of the ATP produced by celular respiration is generally released by the downhill flow of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to O2 to ADP

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What couples the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis

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As the electron transport chain passes electrons down the energy staircase, it also pumps hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

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Chemiosmosis

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The potential energy of this concentration gradient is used to make ATP

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Mesophyll

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The green tissue in the interior of the leaf

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Stroma

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is where the sugars are made from carbon dioxide and water

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Thylakoids

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suspended in sacs in the stroma, which enclose a third chloroplast comparment, called the thylakoid space, this is where grana are

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Grana

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Molecules used to capture light energy

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Photosynthesis is what kind of reaction

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Redox ractuin

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Glycolysis simply means

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Splitting of sugarr

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Glycolysis : Steps 1 - 3

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A fuel molecule is energized using ATP.A sequence of three chemcical reactions coverts gluceose to a molecule of the intermediate Fructose-1,6[diphosphate]

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Glycolysis : Step 4

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A six carbon intermediate splits into three carbon intermediates. Fructose - 1 6[diphosphate] is highly reactive and breaks into 2 three-carbon intermediates. The two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(G3P)
emerge from each glucose molecule that enters glycolysis.

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Glycolysis : Step 5

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A Redox reaction generates NADH. The cells harvest its first parcel of energy. G3P is oxidized and NAD is reduced to NADH. This oxidation releases enough energy to attach a phosphate group to the substrate.

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Steps : 6 - 9

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ATP and pyruvate are produced. During these steps specific enzymes make four molecules of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation. Water is produced at step 8 as a by product

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Pyruvate pre-Citric acid cycle

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As pyruvate is formed it is transported from the cytoplsam into the mitochondria, the sites of the citric acid cycle. A carbon atom is removed from pyruvate and realsed in CO2, The two-carbon compound remaining is oxidized while a molecule of NAD is reduced to NADH then a compound called coenzyme A, derived from Vitamin B joins the two carbon group to form a molecule called Acetyl Coenzyme A

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Citric Acid Cycle : Step 1

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The enzyme acetyl Col combiens with the remaining two-carbon acetyl group with oxaloacetate, already present in the mitochondrion. The product of this reaction is a 6 carbon molecule citrate ( The ionized form of citric acid )

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Light Reactions : 1st step in photosynthesis

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This includes the steps that convert light energy to chemical energy and produce O2 gas as a waste product, this ocurs in the thylkaoid membranes. Light energy absorbed by chloroplasts molecules built into the mebranes is used to make ATP from ADP and phosphate. It is also used to transfer electrons from water to NADP.

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Calvin Cycle : 2nd step in photosynthesis

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Occurs in the stroma of the choloroplast, it is a cyclic series of reactions that assembles sugar molecules using CO2 and the energy containing products of the light reactions. It is NADPH produced by the light reactions that provides the high energy electrons for reduction carbon in the calvin cycle. The ATP from the light reaction provides chemical energy that powers several of the steps of the Calvin cycle.

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Visible light

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It consists of wavelegmth from about 380nm to about 750nm. ( Shorter wave length have more energy that are harmful to organic molecules )

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Chlorophyll A

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Absorbed mainly blue-violet and red light. It reflects mainly green light.

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Chlorophyll B

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absorbed mainly blue and orange light and reflects yellow-green. It broadens the range of lgiht that a plant can use by conveying absorbed energy to chlorophyll a, which then puts the energy to work in the light reactions.

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Carotenoids

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absorbed and dissipate excessive light energy that would otherwise damage chlorophyll

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Electron flow in the light reactions of Photosynthesis : stage 1

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A pigment molecule in a lgiht harvesting complex absorbs a photon of light. The energy is passed to an other pigment moleculess and finally to the reaction center of Photosystem II,

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Electron flow in the light reactions of Photosynthesis : stage 2

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This electron is capture by the primary electron acceptor

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Electron flow in the light reactions of Photosynthesis : stage 3

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Water is split, and its electrons are supplied one by one to P680, replacing those lost to the primary electron acceptor. The oxygen atom combines with an oxygen from an other split water molecule to form 02

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Electron flow in the light reactions of Photosynthesis : stage 4

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Each phtoexcited electron passes from photosystem II to photosystem I via an electron transport chain. The exergonic 'fall' of electron provides energy for synthesis.

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Electron flow in the light reactions of Photosynthesis : stage 5

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Meanwhile light energy excites an electron pf chlorophyll P700 in the reaction center of Photosystem I. The primary electron acceptor captures the excited electron and an electron chain replaces the lost electron in P700.

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Electron flow in the light reactions of Photosynthesis : stage 6

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The excited electron of Photosystem is passed through a short electron transport chain to NADP reducing it to NADPH

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Calvin cycle : Step 1 : Carbon fixation

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An enzyme called rubisco combines CO2 with a five carbon sugar called RuBP. The unstable product splits into two molecules of the three carbon organic acid

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Calvin Cycle : Step 2 : Reduction

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Two chemical reactions consume energy from 6 molecules of ATP and oxides 6 molecules of NADPH. 6 molecules of 3-PGA are reuced producing 6 molecules of the energy G3P

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Calvin Cycle : Step 3 : Realease of one molecule of G3P

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Five of the G3Ps from stem 3 remain in the cycle. The single molecule of G3P ypu see leaving the cycle is the net product of Photosynthesis. A plant cell uses two G3p molecules to make one molecule of glucose

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Calvin Cycle : Step 4 : Regeneration of RuBp

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A series of chemical reactions uses energy from ATP to rearrange the atoms in the five G3P molecules, forming three RuBP molecules. These can start another turn of the cycle.