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111 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Why do cells need energy (6 reasons)? |
- actively pumping solute across a membrane - building polymers from monomers (anabolism) - moving flagella/cilia - reproducing - signal transduction - movement of organelles/ chromosomes |
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What's the difference between respiration and cellular respiration? |
Respiration: inhaling O2 and exhaling CO2 Cellular respiration: the aerobic harvesting of energy from food using 02 |
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Where does energy come from in cellular respiration? How is it harvested? |
The energy is in the food but oxygen is needed. |
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Is cellular respiration exergonic or endergonic? |
Exergonic |
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What are the cellular respiration and ATP synthesis equations? |
Cellular respiration: 🔺G = -686 kcal/mol of glucose Synthesis of ATP: C6 H12 O6 + O2 ➡ CO2 + H2O + ATP |
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What are redox reactions? What are the components? |
Oxidation- Reduction reactions Oxidation: loss of electrons Reduction: gain of electrons |
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What are the oxidizing and reducing agents in a redox reaction? |
Oxidizing agent: becomes reduced
Reducing agent: becomes oxidized |
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What is the function of mitochondria in plant cells? |
In the production of ATP by the process of oxidative phosphorylation |
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The breaking down of proteins carbs and lipids occurs in several steps catalyzed by what? |
Enzymes in every step |
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If the electron is stripped from hydrogen what Remains? What happens to the electron? When does this happen during cellular respiration? |
A proton remains. During the breakdown of glucose electrons from hydrogen are transferred from one reactant to another. |
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During aerobic respiration what is reduced? What is produced as a result? How many ATP are produced relative to glucose? |
Oxygen is reduced, donating and electron to hydrogen to form water. 36 ATP molecules are produced per glucose molecule. |
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Fermentation explanation? How many ATP molecules are produced relatives to glucose? |
NADH is oxidized (loses electrons) in pyruvate is reduced (gains electrons). Produces only 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule. |
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Redox of H2 and O2? What is oxidized and what is reduced? |
Hydrogen is getting oxidized (as oxygen is bonding with it) and oxygen is getting reduced (as husband is bonding with it) simultaneously |
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What do NAD+ and FAD turn into? Why? |
NAD turns into NADH + an H+ FAD turns into FADH2 In both cases an enzyme removes 2 hydrogens from the sugar substrate and adds them to its coenzyme, respectively |
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What happens to NAD+ and FAD after they are reduced? Where do they go? What do they do when they get there? |
NAD+ is converted into NADH and FAD is converted into FADH Both high-energy electrons are shuttled to the inner membrane of the mitochondrion (ETC) to reduce oxygen to water. |
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What is the ETC? Where is it located? What does it consist of? |
- Electron transport chain - Located in the cristae of mitochondrial inner-membrane - consist of protein and non protein complexes embedded (called electron carriers) |
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Is the ETC a single structure? |
No, ATP is synthesized simultaneously at many different sites on the inner membrane of the mitochondria |
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What are the 3 simple steps of the ETC given NADH? |
- Drops its high energy electrons to the first electron carrier - Electrons are passed from carrier to carrier until it reaches the final electrons acceptor (O2) - O2 is reduced to water |
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Is the ETC exergonic or endergonic? |
Excergonic |
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Define the role of NAD+ in cellular respiration |
NAD+ acts as an electron and hydrogen carrier in some redox reactions |
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In general terms, explain the role of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration. |
NADH passes electrons to the electron transport chain, from which they eventually combine with hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. |
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What is anaerobic respiration? |
The use of inorganic molecules other than oxygen to accept electrons at the downhill end of ETC |
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What is glycolysis? Where does it occur? |
Occurrs in the cytosol, breaks glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. |
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What happens to the energy released between redox reactions in the ETC? What is driving these reactions? |
The energy is used to make ATP and the reactions are driven by 02 |
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What is the flow of electrons in cellular respiration? Hint: 4/5 steps |
Glucose => NAD+ (NADH) => ETC => O2 |
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What's the cellular respiration equation? |
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ==> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy |
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What are the three stages of cellular respiration? |
- Glycolysis - Krebs cycle - ETC |
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What is glycolysis? Where does it occur? How much ATP is made and what else is made? |
- Occurs in the cytosol - Begins the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate - Very little ATP is made by substrate level phosphorylation - NADH is also made |
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What is the Krebs cycle? Where does it occur? How much ATP is made this way and what else is made? |
- Occurs in the mitochondrial Matrix - Completes the breakdown of glucose into CO2 - Very little ATP is made by SLP - NADH and FADH2 are also made |
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What is the ETC? Where does it occur? How much ATP is made this way and what else is made? |
- Electron transport chain - Occurs in mitochondrial folds of inner membrane cristae - Most ATP is made this way by oxidative phosphorylation/ chemiosmosis requiring O2 - H2O and CO2 are waste products produced |
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What are the two ways to make ATP? |
- Oxidative phosphorylation - Substrate level phosphorylation |
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What is the oxidative phosphorylation mechanism and where does it occur? |
- Occurs in ETC - Requires O2 - The exergonic flow of electrons down the ETC fuels the endergonic synthesis of ATP |
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How much ATP is made by oxidative phosphorylation? |
90% |
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What is the substrate level phosphorylation mechanism? Where does it occur? |
- Occura during glycolysis and Krebs cycle - An enzyme transfers a (phosphate) Pi from the substrate to ADP to make ATP. ATP then leaves the active site as the product |
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How much ATP is made by substrate level phosphorylation? |
A small amount |
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What are the three and a half stages of cellular respiration? |
1: Glycolysis *oxidation of pyruvate 2: Krebs Cycle 3: ETC |
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What are the 2 phases of glycolysis? What do they do? |
In glycolysis: Energy Investment Phase- 2 ATPs are used to phosphorylate glucose and intermediate making the molecule high in energy, it then breaks in half into 2 three-carbon Sugars Energy Payoff phase- 2 three-carbon sugars are oxidized by NAD+ and 4 ATPs are formed by SLP. The end product of glycolysis is 2 pyruvates |
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What does phosphorylate mean? Give an example. |
Adding/donating a phosphate group to molecules; in the instance of organic molecules results in providing them energy rich molecules Ex: adding a phosphate to ADP thus forming ATP |
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How many net ATP and NADH are made through glycolysis? |
ATP - 2 NADH - 2 |
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What is the function of the oxidation of pyruvate? Why? Where does it occur? |
-Glucose must complete its break down into CO2 -There's still a lot of energy in pyruvate - The mitochondrial Matrix if there is oxygen present |
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What is pyruvate dehydrogenase? What are the three tasks pyruvate dehydrogenase performs? |
It is the multi-enzyme complex Decarboxylation: Cleaves carboxyl group as CO2 NAD+ : oxidizes the acetyl (2 carbon group) to form NADH Coenzyme A: is attached to the acetyl group ==> Acetyl CoA |
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Explain the oxidation of pyruvate. |
A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate and released as CO2. The two carbon molecule from the first step is oxidized and NAD+ accepts the electrons to form NADH. The oxidized 2-carbon molecule (an acetyl group) is attached to Coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA. |
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Where does Acetyl CoA come from? What is its primary function? |
To deliver its acetyl group to the Citric Acid Cycle (aka Krebs Cycle) to be oxidized for energy production |
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What is the net yield of the oxidation of pyruvate? |
NADH - 2 CoA |
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Where does the Krebs cycle take place? |
Mitochondrial Matrix |
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Describe the Krebs cycle |
- Acetyl group is cleaved from coenzyme a and joins onto oxaloacentrate ( 4- C ) - Oxidation by NAD+ continues to form NADH and more CO2 is released - 2 ATP are made by SLP - FAD also participates in oxidation forming fadh2 until there is a regeneration of oxaloacetate - Krebs Cycle spins twice |
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What is made by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle that is ready to be used by the cell? |
ATP |
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What two molecules are carrying most of the energy? Where must they go? |
NADH nd FADH2 are both carrying high energy electrons and must continue to the ETC |
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What is ATP synthase? |
And enzyme that synthesizes ATP by oxidative phosphorylation/ chemiosmosis |
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List pathway of catabolism of glycolysis? |
Polysaccharides -- glycolysis -- pyruvate -- Acetyl CoA -- Krebs Cycle |
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What are the 3 types of microbes? |
Aerobes: can only survive in the presence of O2 to undergo C.R. Strict Aerobes: cannot survive in the presence of O2. Must undergo fermentation for their survival Facultative Anaerobe: can live in the presence or absence of O2 |
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What are the 2 types of fermentation? |
Alcohol fermentation in yeast Lactic acid fermentation in muscle cells |
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What is fermentation? What is it's function? What's its energy yield like? What performs this? |
-Anaerobic respiration -Mechanism of producing ATP in the absence of O2 -Only uses glycolysis
-Generates 2 ATP and 2 NADH and NAD+ is recycled back into the glycolytic pathway - Performed by microbes |
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How many atp's do NADH and FADH2 generate respectively? |
NADH- 3 ATP FADH- 2 ATP |
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Oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis |
Look up |
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Oxidative phosphorylation is made up of what two components? |
The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis |
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What is stoma? What is a stroma? Where are they located? |
Stoma- pores that allowed to leave and CO2 to enter. Located outermost layer of leaf. Stroma- gelatinous fluid where sugar is made. Located inside chloroplasts. |
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What are mesophyll cells? |
Compose the ground tissue or the "flesh" of the leaf |
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In which cells are chloroplasts found? |
Mesophyll cells |
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What is a Grana? Explain components. |
A grana is a stack of disks made of thylakoid membranes which contain pigments aka chlorophyll. |
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What is the photosynthesis equation? |
Respiration backwards |
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Explain how photosynthesis and cellular respiration in reverse. |
Cellular respiration: electrons move down the ATC to the final electron acceptor O2 and then energy was used to make ATP Photosynthesis is the reverse: water is split and electrons from water will be given to CO2 to make sugar |
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Why are electrons high-energy are there transferred to CO2? |
Solar energy |
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What are the two stages of photosynthesis? |
Light Reaction and Calvin Cycle |
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What are the three steps of the light reaction? Where does it occur? |
- H2O is split into O2 - Electrons are passed to NADP+ (coenzyme) and transformed into NADHP - ATP is made by photophosphorylation. Occurs in the thylakoid membrane |
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What is the Calvin cycle? Where does it occur? |
Carbon fixation: joining CO2 onto an organic molecule which will eventually be reduced into sugar with the help of NADPH (made in the light reaction) this process requires energy (ATP). Occurs in the stroma. |
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Look at this |
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What is white light? How does it travel? What is it represented by? How is it measured? |
- electromagnetic energy / radiation - represented by the Greek letter Lambda - travels in rhythmic waves - measured from Crest to Crest or trough to trough |
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What is a photon? How is the energy of the wave related 2 wavelength? |
A photon is a fixed amount of light energy. The energy of the wave is inversely related to the wavelength, violet 380nm has twice as much energy as a red 750 nm |
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What do the waves range to and from? What is the nanometer range (exponents)? |
Ranges from gamma rays to radio waves 10 ^ -9 |
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What are the three possibilities when light hits matter? |
Absorbed: by matter (these colors are not seen) Transmitted: passed through matter (seen) Reflected: into your eyes (seen) |
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What are pigments? What do they do? Where are they located? What effects how they absorb transmit and reflect colors? |
- Pigments are photoreceptors - They absorb, transmit and reflect light - The wavelengths of light (aka colors) they absorb, transmit and reflect are determined by the shape of the pigment - These pigments are embedded in the thylakoid membrane |
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How to chlorophyll A&B differ? |
They differ by one functional group, therefore they do not absorb, transmit and reflect the same wavelengths of light |
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What are the 3 photoreceptors embedded in the thylakoid membrane? Do they participate directly or indirectly in photosynthesis? What colors do they absorb transmit and reflect? |
Chlorophyll A: - participates directly - absorbs violet-blue and red - reflects green Chlorophyll B: - participates indirectly - absorbs blue and orangy-red - reflects yellow-green Carotenoids: - participates indirectly - absorbs violet and blue - reflects yellow orange and red |
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What is the purpose of having additional pigments in the thylakoid membrane? |
Types of light (aka certain wavelengths) which cannot be absorbed buy chlorophyll A, the primary pigment, are trapped by the other pigments |
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Why do leaves change color in the autumn? What are carotenoids precursors to? |
All pigments are present in the leaves but chlorophyll masks carotenoids, precursor to vitamin A |
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What is a photosystem? |
A reaction center and light harvesting complex: pigments bound to proteins in the thylakoid membrane |
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What is the reaction Center? |
Chlorophyll A and primary electron acceptor |
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How do the three pigments work together in the photosystem? |
Solar energy hits the thylakoid membrane, other pigments (Chlorophyll B and carotenoids) relay light energy to chlorophyll A in the reaction center |
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What is the purpose of the electron acceptor? |
Electrons in chlorophyll gain energy and jump to the excited state, similar to a photon jumping energy levels. But they do not jump back down to the ground state because they are accepted by the primary electron acceptor. |
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Which photosystem occurs first? What things do both have the same? What do they have differently? |
Photosystem 2 occurs before 1 Both have a reaction Center and light-harvesting complexes Both have chlorophyll in the reaction Center chlorophyll absorbs a slightly different wavelength of light |
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What variations of chlorophyll A do photosystem 2 and photosystem 1 each have, respectively? What causes the difference in wavelength absorption? |
Photosystem 2: has chlorophyll A (P680) which absorbs orangey- red light Photosystem 1: has chlorophyll A (P700) which absorbs red light The difference is due to the proteins in the membrane that the chlorophyll A's are associated with |
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Where does the light reaction occur? What three things are produced in the light reaction? |
Occurs in the thylakoid membrane Produces ATP NADPH and O2 |
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What are the 2 types of light reactions? |
Noncyclic flow of electrons Cyclic flow of electrons |
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What are the two ways to make ATP? How is most ATP made? Where does each occur? |
Oxidative phosphorylation - 90% ATP made this way - Occurs in ETC Substrate level phosphorylation -small amount - Occurs during glycolysis and Krebs cycle |
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Why is it called substrate level phosphorylation? |
A phosphate is added to ADP on the substrate level in an enzyme |
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What two sugar molecules are isomers? |
Glucose and fructose |
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List glycolysis steps |
-Glucose -Glucose-6-phosphate -Fructose 6 phosphate -Fructose 1 6 biphosphate -Dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate -1- 3 biphosphoglycerate -3 phosphoglycerate -2 phosphoglycerate -Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) -Pyruvate |
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What happens to NAD+ during glycolysis? |
NAD+ is reduced by glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate, NAD+ is the oxidizing agent. G3P gives H to NAD+ |
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What happens to carbon is 1 + 6 on glucose during glycolysis? |
They are phosphorylated, hence fructose 1-6 biphosphate |
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What does the oxidation of pyruvate produced? |
2 NADH and 2 CO2 |
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Where is pyruvate made and where does it go? |
It's made in the cytosol and shuttled by a transport protein into the mitochondrial Matrix |
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What are the two components of oxidative phosphorylation? |
Chemiosmosis and electron transport chain |
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What two things does photosynthesis require? What two things does it produce? |
Requires CO2 and H2O Produces glucose and 02 |
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What connects the 2 photosystems? |
ETCs |
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How does photosystem 2 create an electrochemical gradient? |
Hydrogen ions are pumped into the thylakoid |
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In mitochondria where is the concentration of hydrogen ions? |
In the intermembrane space |
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Where does the ATP and nadph used in the Calvin cycle come from? |
ATP synthase producing these components from light reactions |
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Where do the ATP and nadph produced during light reactions go? |
They power of the Calvin cycle |
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Where does the Calvin cycle occur? |
The stroma, the thick gelatinous fluid inside chloroplasts similar to cytosol |
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How to photosystems two and one respectively replenish their electrons? What is then produced as a waste product? |
Photosystem 2 breaks water and steals electrons photosystem 1 is replenished by electrons passed from photosystem 2. When photosystem 2 breaks water O2 and hydrogen ions are pumped into the thylakoid compartment. |
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What two molecules are necessary for the Calvin cycle to build sugar? |
ATP and NADPH |
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How/ where is acetyl coenzyme a produced? |
The decarboxylation of pyruvate in The Matrix of the mitochondria, the cleaving off of the carboxyl group |
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What is chemiosmosis? What's another name for it? |
Proteins moving down the concentration gradient through ATP synthase called proton motive Force |
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Why is it called Oxidative phosphorylation? |
Because oxygen is running the entire reaction |
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What type of protein is ATP synthase? What is another name for this type? |
It is multiple amino acid chains AKA a quaternary protein |
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Theoretically how many atp's to NADH and FADH produce respectively? |
NADH - 3 FADH -2 |
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How many ATP are produced by oxidative phosphorylation? |
34 |
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How many ATP are produced by substrate level phosphorylation? |
4 |
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What are the 2 types of fermentation? What happens to pyruvate in each? Is CO2 released? |
Alcohol fermentation: NADH gives its electrons to pyruvate to produce ethanol CO2 is released Lactic acid fermentation: Pyruvate is reduced to lactate CO2 is not released |
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Alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation? |
Alcohol fermentation nadh donates electrons to pyruvate producing a fennel and releasing CO2 Lactic acid fermentation pyruvate is reduced to lactate CO2 is not released |
