Bio 104 Exam Final

Front 1

Identify a muscle bundle/fascicle

Back 1

Front 2

Identify a muscle cell/fiber

Back 2

Front 3

Identify a myofibril

Back 3

Front 4

Identify a sarcomere

Back 4

Front 5

Identify an actin/ thin filament

Back 5

Front 6

Identify a myosin/ thick filament

Back 6

Front 7

Structure of an amino acid

Back 7

Front 8

Structure of a nucleotide

Back 8

Front 9

Structure of a phospholipid

Back 9

Front 10

Structure of trans unsaturated fatty acid, cis unsaturated fatty acid and saturated fatty acidWhich of these are generally considered unhealthy?

Back 10

Saturated fat and trans fat

Front 11

Structure of a triglyceride

Back 11

Front 12

Structure of the carbohydrates: glucose, galactose, fructose

Back 12

Front 13

If a protein is considered a chain, we'd say its links are ____ ____

Back 13

Amino acids

Front 14

Discuss three to five classes of protein and describe what they do

Back 14

Enzymes - facilitate chemical reactions in our cells, structural - maintain integrity of our cells, transport - control what goes in and out of cells, motor/contraction - facilitate movement such as muscle contractions

Front 15

Are all proteins capable of carrying out the same functions as other proteins? Why or why not?

Back 15

No, because proteins differ from each other in their 3-dimensional shape

Front 16

If we consider nucleic acid a chain, we'd say its links are ____

Back 16

Nucleotides

Front 17

What do DNA and RNA do?

Back 17

DNA tells RNA how to make proteins, and RNA makes proteins

Front 18

What's the main difference between a single strand of DNA and a single strand of RNA?

Back 18

The nucleotides of each are made in part of ribose, a simple sugar, but in DNA, the ribose is actually called "deoxyribose" because one of ribose's oxygen atoms is missing (more correctly, one of its hydroxides has been replaced with a hydrogen atom)

Front 19

ATP is our immediate energy source. What molecule do our cells prefer to use to make ATP?

Back 19

Glucose (a simple sugar)

Front 20

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are _____. Monosaccharides and disaccharides are usually called simple ____. Polysaccharides, especially those in whole fruits and whole vegetables, are usually called complex _____.

Back 20

Carbohydrates, sugars, carbohydrates

Front 21

Name the three monosaccharides many of us eat

Back 21

Glucose, fructose, galactose

Front 22

Name the three disaccharides many of us eat. Identify the two monosaccharides that make them

Back 22

Sucrose - glucose and fructose

maltose - glucose and glucose

lactose - glucose and galactose

Front 23

What are the three polysaccharides many of us eat?

Back 23

Starch, cellulose, glycogen

Front 24

All three of these polysaccharides are nothing more than chains of glucose. Howe, then, do they differ from each other?

Back 24

They differ in how their glucose units are linked together

Front 25

Which of these polysaccharides do we consume when we eat meat or liver?

Back 25

Glycogen

Front 26

Which two polysaccharides are made by plants and make up the tissue of plants?

Back 26

Starch and cellulose

Front 27

Which of these two polysaccharides can we digest and thus use for energy?

Back 27

Glycogen and starch

Front 28

Which os these two polysaccharides serves as "fiber" or what some call "bulk" in our diets? Can we digest and extract energy from this molecule? Why or why not?

Back 28

Cellulose; no, we can't digest cellulose, and thus we can't extract energy from it; because we don't have the enzyme needed to break the kind of bond that links its glucose units together

Front 29

What two molecules do people make to store excess energy (particularly, glucose) they've eaten?

Back 29

Glycogen and triglyceride

Front 30

Which of these two molecules is made first if a person consumes more glucose than needed? When is the second made?

Back 30

Glycogen is made first; triglyceride is made after

Front 31

Which parts of our body make glycogen? What parts store glycogen?

Back 31

To both questions ; liver and muscles

Front 32

What part of our body makes triglyceride out of excess sugar?

Back 32

Liver

Front 33

Is all of the triglyceride stored in our body made from sugar we eat? Explain.

Back 33

No. Some of the triglycerides we store are made from the fats we eat

Front 34

What is the name of the process that allows our cells to extract energy from our food? The "point" of this process is to make bunches of ____

Back 34

Respiration (a.k.a, cellular respiration); the point of respiration is to make bunches of ATP

Front 35

Molecular oxygen (O2) is necessary to fully extract energy from our food. Explain why this is by telling me why it's legitimate to think of this process as being akin to electricity.

Back 35

Hydrogen electrons from glucose or fatty acids, etc. are passed from one protein to another and eventually to oxygen. This flow of electrons can be thought of as being driven by oxygen pulling these electrons down a "power line" made of the proteins embedded in inner membrane o mitochondria

Front 36

If glucose, fatty acids, and ketones are molecules from which we extract energy to live, why do we consider ATP our ultimate energy molecule? Hint: think about the definitions of energy and work.

Back 36

Energy is the capacity to do work, and work is the movement or rearrangement of matter, so the fact that ATP changes the shape of molecules and causes them to move means that ATP functions as energy

Front 37

Why is it misleading (and incomplete) to say that plants breathe carbon dioxide (CO2) and that people breathe oxygen (O2)

Back 37

People and plants live on land breathe air, and air is made of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and other molecules, including carbon dioxide (nearly 0.04%)

Front 38

Why is it incorrect and misleading to say that plants photosynthesize to make oxygen for people?

Back 38

Plants photosynthesize because they have chlorophylls and other molecules that causes them to photosynthesize. OF a person insists on personifying plants, then one could say that plants photosynthesize to make food (i.e. sugar) for themselves. Oxygen is simply a wast by-product of the process that both plants and animals use in cellular respiration

Front 39

What causes discomfort when holding one's breath and inevitable muscle contractions that force one to breathe?

Back 39

Buildup of CO2 in the blood

Front 40

What causes this buildup of CO2 in the blood?

Back 40

Cellular respiration

Front 41

What would eventually kill us if nothing else did? Why?

Back 41

Oxygen (O2); because it damages our proteins and DNA when it steals electrons from them or when it creates "free radicals" that steal electrons from our proteins and DNA

Front 42

Name and identify the different parts of our digestive system (but only the organs)

Back 42

Mouth, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver, gall bladder

Front 43

In what parts of our digestive system do enzymes carry out chemical digestion?

Back 43

Mouth, stomach, and small intestine

Front 44

Where does most enzyme-based digestion occur?

Back 44

Small intestine

Front 45

Which organ secretes digestive enzymes in to small intestine?

Back 45

Pancreas

Front 46

Bile is made by the ___, stored in the ___ ___, and secreted into the ___ ____.

Back 46

liver, gall bladder, small intestine

Front 47

Bile's function is to __ __ __ __ __

Back 47

facilitate the breakdown/digestion of lipids

Front 48

Why must disaccharides and complex carbohydrates be digested if we are to make use of them?

Back 48

Because they are too large to be absorbed by the small intestine's cells.

Front 49

Why is it healthier to eat complex carbohydrates than simple sugars?

Back 49

Simple sugars are absorbed quickly (because they don't have to be digested, or because they require only one or two chemical reactions to be digested), and this rapid absorption can overburden the pancreas and cause sugar concentration in the blood to spike, which in turn can damage nerves, blood vessels, and tissues with high concentrations of nerves or capillaries. In contrast, complex carbohydrates require more chemical reactions to be digested, and as a result the glucose molecules they're made of are absorbed more slowly and more steadily, thereby avoiding the glucose spikes associated with eating/ drinking simple sugars

Front 50

Why is it correct to say that refined sugars such as pure sucrose, pure glucose, pure fructose, or high fructose syrups are unhealthy if consumed in anything greater than small amounts?

Back 50

Refined sugar is easily and rapidly digested and absorbed, causing spikes/ surges in blood sugar levels if consumed in more than small moderate amounts. A surge of glucose can overwhelm our supply of insulin, causing damage to blood vessels & nerves Liver cells are the only cells in our bodies that metabolize fructose, and refined sugar is 50% fructose, so too much fructose can overburden the liver and cause fatty liver disease

Front 51

Why is it nonsense for someone to say that sugar is poison?

Back 51

Because glucose, which is a sugar, is the energy source our cells tend to prefer, and it's the energy source *required* by cells of our central nervous system (i.e., brain, spinal cord, etc.).

Front 52

Which organ detoxifies the by-product created when cels metabolize a protein's amino acids?

Back 52

The liver converts ammonium into urea

Front 53

Why is eating too much protein unhealthy?

Back 53

Ammonia created by metabolism of amino acids that make up protein overwhelms and damages the liver and kidneys. Ammonia is toxic, and too much will overwhelm and damage the liver and kidneys

Front 54

Where does most absorption of the molecules we eat occur?

Back 54

Small intestine

Front 55

Where do amino acids and monosaccharides go after they are absorbed by small intestine cells?

Back 55

Liver

Front 56

Where does fat go after it's absorbed by small intestine cells?

Back 56

Lymphatic system (then to blood, liver, etc)

Front 57

How much energy is contained in carbohydrates, protein, and lipids?

Back 57

Carbs 4 kilocalories per gram (kcal/g); protein 4 kcal/g to 6 kcal/g; lipids 9 kcal/g

Front 58

If we have the choice of eating 100 grams of carbohydrate or 50 grams of fat mixed with 50 grams of carbohydrate, which would provide more energy and thus more weight gain if we don't use the energy? Show the energy of each

Back 58

50 g of fat and 50 g of carb eaten together provide more energy [(9 kcal x 50) + (4 kcal x 50) = 650 kcal] than 100 g of carb ( 4 kcal x 100 = 400 kcal)

Front 59

Metabolic rate is measure of how much energy our body uses up per unit time ( e.g., kcal per hours). What factors affect our metabolic metabolic rate, how do they affect it, and how relevant is behavior?

Back 59

Lean body mass and thyroid hormones affect metabolic rate

- Metabolic rate increases with an increase in lean body mass (i.e., with an increase in muscle per unit body weight). This factor can be meaningfully modified by behavior

- Metabolic rate increases with increase in two hormones produced by the thyroid gland. Behavior has little effect on levels of these hormones, but behavior can- to a moderate extent - counteract some effects caused by abnormalities in levels of these hormones

Front 60

What factors affect our appetite?

Back 60

-the hormone leptin is produced by fat cells decreases appetite-the hormone ghrelin is produced by stomach cells and increases appetite- habits and emotions affect hormones and neurotransmitters and therefore appetite

Front 61

Too much calorie restriction can be extremely dangerous, even lethal, by screwing up the immune system and the endocrine system among other things. However, controlled experiments show that mild calorie restriction can be quite heathy and increase life-span (assuming one still eats proper proportion of carbohydrate, protein, and fat). What is one of the reasons that explains this effect of reducing our calorie intake?

Back 61

Mitochondria operate less efficiently when high amounts of energy are available, resulting in more free radicals such as superoxide. Free radicals damage our cells and cause many aging effects

Front 62

What's more dangerous, and "apple body type of "pear" body type? Why?

Back 62

Apple, because the "apple" type usually indicates high amounts of fat inside the abdominal cavity (i.e., abdominal visceral adipose), which is associated with heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes; in contrast, the "pear" type usually indicates subcutaneous fat in the hips and thighs

Front 63

What's more dangerous, subcutaneous adipose (i.e., fat tissue) or visceral adipose? Why?

Back 63

Visceral adipose is more dangerous because it is deep in the abdominal cavity and is associated with heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes

Front 64

All-out anorexia is an unhealthy condition that kills. Is it a major problem for the U.S population? Explain

Back 64

No, it's a problem for people who have the condition, but it can't be considered a major problem for the U.S population because very few people who suffer from it (.6% of the population) according to data reported by the U.S Centers for Disease Control and the U.S National Institutes of Health

Front 65

Why is true, full-bore obesity dangerous?

Back 65

It's associated with heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and other problems with vital organs

Front 66

How much of the the U.S population suffers anorexia? How much of the U.S population is overweight? How much of the U.S population is obese?

Back 66

Anorexia = .6%; overweight = 50%; obese = 25%

Front 67

Body Mass Index (BMI) is currently used by health insurance companies and many employers to determine coverage levels and premium costs. What's wrong with applying the BMI too strictly to individuals?

Back 67

BMI is not a measure of health or physical fitness, so it's inappropriate to "over" apply it when judging a person's health. Many "star" athletes who are amazingly "fit" are clinically obese

Front 68

What's the relationship between risk of death and BMI?

Back 68

Risk of death is meaningfully higher for people who are extremely "underweight" and for people who are extremely "overweight". However, people who are mildly overweight (BMI of 25 - 30) have practically no higher risk of death than people who have an ideal BMI

Front 69

Did the prof. claim in class or elsewhere that it is not morally okay to kill human embryos?

Back 69

No!

Front 70

Can science tell us whether it's morally okay to kill human embryos? Explain

Back 70

No! Science relies on observation to answer questions, and observation does not provide information that can answer questions about morality.

Front 71

What is the oldest, most developed embryo that still has embryonic stem cells that can be reliably extracted for research & medical use?

Back 71

7 days old

Front 72

How do we know that people and apes are NOT monkeys?

Back 72

-We & apes lack tails (usually; interestingly, we still have genes that can produce tails, but they usually don't turn on during apes' development or our development)

-We & apes have flat-ish faces rather than snouts

-Several other traits, but these are sufficient for our puposes

Front 73

Did the prof. claim in class or elsewhere that it is morally okay to kill human embryos?

Back 73

No!

Front 74

Why are people classified, biologically, as animals rather than prokaryote, protist, plant, or fungus?

Back 74

Because people lack cell walls, are made of multiple cells, and have membrane-bound organelles.

Front 75

What characteristics do people and other forms of life have that cause us to classify them as living?

Back 75

-Living things transform energy & molecules in a way that maintains life (i.e., organisms are capable of metabolism)

-Living things are made of and are capable of making the molecules of life (protein, carbohydrate, lipid, nucleic acid), which are organized into cells-Living things grow

-Living things reproduce and in so doing pass characteristics of themselves to their offspring

Front 76

Why is it important for people, particularly people in democratic societies, to understand the fundamentals of science?

Back 76

- Most people don't understand what science is or how it works, which makes them easily decided by marketing and people with wealth, power, and agendas.

- Democratic societies need their citizens to be knowledgeable enough and thoughtful enough to make wise decisions about these implications.

Front 77

How do we know that people are not just any kind of vertebrate, but mammals? In other words how do we know we're not one of the other vertebrate animals (i.e., not a fish, amphibian, reptile, or bird)?

Back 77

Like other mammals, we have milk-producing glands (i.e., mammary glands), hair, and the ability to regulate our body temperature

Front 78

How do we know that people are not just any kind of mammals, but placental mammals?

Back 78

- Unlike monotreme mammals, we don't lay eggs

-Unlike marsupial mammals, we don't birth our babies prematurely and then continue their development in a maternal pouch

- Like other placental mammals, our babies develop a fleshy, highly vascularized (i.e., filled with blood vessels) interface called a placenta in the mommy's uterus

Front 79

What are the different kinds of apes?

Back 79

Gibbon, gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee, bonobo

Front 80

How do we know that people are not just any kind of animal, but chordates?

Back 80

People have notochords. Some chordates retain their notochord. We and all other "vertebrate" animals have a notochord only when we are embryos because our notochord develops into our backbone (i.e., vertebral column).

Front 81

What distinguishes animals from other forms of life (i.e., from prokaryotes, protists, plants, and fungi)?

Back 81

Animals lack cell walls, are made of multiple cells, and have membrane-bound organelles

Front 82

How do we know that people are not just any kind of chordates, but vertebrates?

Back 82

Like other vertebrate animals, our notochord develops into our backbone (i.e., vertebral column)

Front 83

What were the key points that the prof. presented about human embryos?

Back 83

- Egg cells are living. Sperm cells are living. Thus, an embryo is living. In other words, there is no biological debate about when life begins. Any cell or group of cells that haven't been killed are living.

- Embryonic stem cells cannot be reliably extracted from embryos older than roughly 7 days.

- Extracting stem cells from 2 day old embryos likely won't kill the embryo. Extracting stem cells from a 7 day embryo will kill the embryo.

- Science CANNOT tell us whether it's morally okay to kill human embryos. It's not a question science can answer.

Front 84

How do we know that people are not just any kind of placental mammals, but primates?

Back 84

- Opposable thumbs and the associated "power grip"

- Flattened finger nails instead of claws or hooves

- Trichromatic color vision-Several other traits, but these are sufficient for our puroposes

Front 85

What overarching topics will be taught in this class?

Back 85

- Our biological characteristics (mostly our physiology), particularly in the context of health/medical issues and social issues

- The nature of science with emphasis on what science can do, what it can't do, and why

Front 86

How reasonable is it for people to claim that vaccines do more harm than good? Explain.

Back 86

It's probably unreasonable becuse history repeatedly shows vaccines usually protect people from targeted infections. In contrast, very few people are known to have been harmed by vaccines

Front 87

Do we retain life-long immunity once we develop specific immunity to a particular pathogen?

Back 87

Not always. That's why we must keep some of our immunizations "up to date". Moreover, we aren't able to develop immunity to some pathogens, particularly pathogens that produce toxins that are potent in miniscule concentrations

Front 88

What is wrong with the idea that “being a little dirty” will allow us to develop specific immunity to a pathogen (e.g., bacterium, virus, protist) we’ve not previously encountered without getting sick?

Back 88

Several days are required for our specific immune system to build up in response to a new pathogen. During this time our nonspecific immune system engages in chemical warfare against the pathogen, and in the process creates inflammation, pain, and other symptoms of "being sick" by killing many of our own cells.

Front 89

Under what condition can "being a little dirty" be beneficial without the threat of getting sick? Why is it beneficial under this condition?

Back 89

Exposing ourselves to pathogens (i.e., "being a little dirty") can be beneficial if we *know* we're exposing ourselves only to pathogens we've already encountered because it causes us to replenish the memory cells that respond to the (already known) pathogens. It can also be beneficial, so to speak, if you know you can keep the infection at bay (i.e., not die) during the several days required to develop a specific immune response

Front 90

What causes the symptoms of being sick (i.e., stuff like fever, inflammation, swelling, pain)?

Back 90

Most of the suffering associated with "being sick" is caused by non-specific components of our immune system. Some microorganisms can produce toxins that cause cellular damage or tissue damage, but most of the damage that cuases us to feel sick is caused by our immune system attacking the microorganisms

Front 91

Be able to interpret a microarray and the use of microarrays. For example, the image below illustrates a microarray that includes seven alleles that we think might be relevant in depression. Wells 2 & 7 contain alleles expressed in people who experience clinical depression. Wells 1 & 4 contain alleles expressed in people who've never experienced clinical depression. Well 5 contains an allele expressed in both groups of people. Wells 3 & 6 contain alleles expressed in neither group of people.

a. Which alleles appear to be irrelevant to clinical depression?

b. Why do we conclude that alleles 3,5, and 6 are probably irrelevent to clinical depression?

c. Why do we conclude that alleles 2, and 7 might be relevant to clinical depression?

d. Why do we conclude that alleles 1, and 4 might be relevant to clinical depression?

Back 91

a. 3,5,6

b. Because the two treatment groups do not differ in these three alleles. Specifically, both groups express allele 5, and don't express alleles 3, and 6

c. Because the two treatment groups differ in these alleles. Specifically, alleles 2&7 are expressed in people who experience depression, but they're not expressed in people who don't experience depressiond.

d. Becasue the two treatment group differ in these alleles. Specifically, alleles 1&4 are expressed in pepole who don't experience depression, but they're not expressed in people who experience depression

Front 92

Be able to interpret the results of a concordance study. For example, imagine that you’re doing a concordance study to test whether there’s a genetic component to addiction. You have 100 MZ twins and 100 DZ twins in the study. You find that 50% of the time among MZ twins, if one twin has addiction problems, the other twin has addiction problems. You find that this situation is true only 10% of the time among DZ twins. Do these data support the idea that there’s a genetic component to addiction, or do they refute the idea?

Back 92

This data supports the idea that there's a genetic component because we would expect DZ twins to show concordance no less often than MZ twins if there was no genetic contribution to addiction

Front 93

What is the proper use of "heritability"?

Back 93

Heritability is a measure of genetic variability in a population rather than a measure of genetic contribution in an individual, and it varies among populations based on genetic and environmental similarity/variability within each population

Front 94

What do genetic studies tell us about heterosexuality and homosexuality?

Back 94

MZ/DZ twin concordance studies and studies of genetic markers in twins and non-twin siblings show that sexual attraction is, at least in part, genetically based

Front 95

Many studies consistently find evidence that people who possess a particular allele tend to be more aggressive and violent than people who don't have the allele. Why would it be incorrect to argue that inheritance of this allele condemns a person to being aggressive and violent?

Back 95

Because aggression, like all/most of our behaviors, is controlled by multiple genes (not just this one) and is shaped in part by environmental factors such as training

Front 96

Excluding genetic evidence, explain four lines of evidence that neural activity is at least responsible for forming our thoughts.

Back 96

1. We have to "make sense" of what we "see" (or hear or smell, etc.). We "learn" what the environmental signals mean. It *probably* means nerve cells in your brain formed new synapses and turned on genes (or turned off genes) responsible for particular molecules in the membranes of the brain's cells

2. Injuries to the brain and brain lesions alter personality and behavior

3. Alteration of neurotransmitter activity among nerve cells in the brain (e.g., through stress, drugs, etc.) alters thoughts, decision making, reasoning, emotions, and behaviors

4. Tomography allows us to see which groups of nerve cells are communicating when we experience various emotions, making decisions, etc.

Front 97

How does a nerve signal cause a muscle to contract?

Back 97

1. Electrical signal traveling down neuron causes a nerotransmitter (acetylcholine) to be released at the synapse with the muscle cell.

2. Molecules in the membrane of the muscle cell bind with the neurotransmitter, creating an electrical charge (change in concentration of ions) that cause calcium ions (Ca++) to be released from part of the muscle cell out into the muscle cell's "general space"

3. The calcium ions (Ca++) bind with actin complexes (technically with troponin), which causes actin's orientation to change in a way that allows "little heads" that are part of myosin's structure to attach to the actin

4. When myosin attaches, ATP that's on the myosin "heads" reacts in a way that causes the "heads" to "pull" actin. This "pulling" is a contraction. Contraction continues as long as ATP and Ca++ are available

Front 98

How are light, sound, pressure, temperature, other environmental stimuli transformed into "information" that travels via nerves?

Back 98

Environmental stimulus --> chemical/molecule signal --> electrical signal- --> chemical/molecule signal; repeats until signal causes a muscle to contract or a gland to release a hormone (E->C ->E->C)

Front 99

How is one to determine if a question can or cannot be answered by science?

Back 99

The the question can be put to the test with observation, then it's a question science can answer. Otherwise, it's not a question science can answer

Front 100

What is the formal use of theory? Also explain the confusion due to the contradictory use of the word theory.

Back 100

A theory (formal use) is a well substantiated explanation. It may be incomplete, and it may have holes, but its basic tenets have been independently and repeatedly confirmed/verified.

Front 101

What is a hypothesis?

Back 101

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation based on observation and logic that can be tested

Front 102

What is a fact?

Back 102

A fact is something that has actually occurred; something that is actually the case

Front 103

What is an opinion?

Back 103

An opinion is an idea/judgment one holds without sufficient information but with conviction that the idea is correct

Front 104

What is a guess?

Back 104

A guess is an idea/judgment one holds without sufficient information and not knowing whether the idea is correct

Front 105

Know how deductive reasoning is used

Back 105

Deductive reasoning someone forms a conclusion based on something she knows, such as a known assocation. Ex. if I conclude that the tires lose air pressure in cold whether because I learned Ideal Gas Laws in a chemistry course, particularly the law that air pressure in a confined space is positively associated with temperature.

Front 106

Know how inductive reasoning is used

Back 106

Inductive reasoning is someone forming a conclusion based on repeatedly seeing something happen. Ex. if I conclude that tires lose air pressure in cold whether because I’ve noticed that my tires lose air pressure every winter.

Front 107

Logic in the form of _____ is used to generate testable predictions from hypotheses that are themselves developed by detecting patterns using logic in the form of ____

Back 107

deduction; induction

Front 108

Do all ideas or explanations require the same amount of evidence?

Back 108

NO! The more extraordinary the claim, the more evidence people demand

Front 109

Science embraces the notion that the most ______ explanation is usually the best explanation, all else equal.

Back 109

simple

Front 110

Hundreds of scientists over the last 50 years have performed hundreds of different experiments testing the effect of eating tomatoes on aging. Roughly 85% of the experiments show that eating tomatoes reduces the rate of aging. Given that science (or any other human endeavor) can never “prove” an explanation with absolute certainty, is it reasonable to believe that eating tomatoes reduces the rate of aging, or is it reasonable to believe that eating tomatoes does not reduce the rate of aging? Support your answer in one sentence

Back 110

It is NOT logical to place your bet on a 15% chance event rather than an 85% chance event

Front 111

Although knowledge gained through scientific investigation can be wrong or incomplete, and is always produced by biased individuals (all people are biased), scientific explanations that have stood the test of time and been widely accepted are usually correct. Why?

Back 111

Because well accepted ideas have usually been repeatedly confirmed by independent observations. Some studies involve *direct* observation. Other involve *indirect* observation.

Front 112

Based on the way scientific investigation usually proceeds, an idea is considered "scientific" if it...

Back 112

Can be challenged/tested

Front 113

What must be true about multiple observations (i.e., observational test) for them to be considered scientific evidence for or against a proposed explanation?

Back 113

They must be independent of each other

Front 114

Although confident in the validity of repeatedly confirmed scientific explanations, the scientific community claims that such knowledge is probabilistic rather than certain, absolute truth. Why?

Back 114

Because science relies on observation to test/challenge ideas and answer questions, and knowledge gained through observation is subject to being misinterpreted and it limited to know conditions (i.e., the conditions under which the observations were made).

Front 115

What two weaknesses did the prof. associate with knowledge gained through observation?

Back 115

The knowledge is subject to misinterpretation and it is limited to know conditions

Front 116

Why is science unable to answer questions about the supernatural (e.g., spirituality, magic, etc.)?

Back 116

Because science relies on observation to test/challenge ideas and answer questions, and the supernatural cannot be observed directly or even indirectly. By definition, *super*natural is *beyond* natural, meaning it's beyond being perceivable via our senses of perception (seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching).

Front 117

Explain why the process of "doing" scientific research implicitly assumes naturalism, and realism, even if the scientist doing the work doen't "believe in" naturalism or realism

Back 117

When a process relies on observation to test/ challenge ideas and answer questions -as science does- the process has not ability to examine/ include "causes" other than those found in the "natural" world (i.e., the world we can perceive with seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching); thus, the process of "doing" science assumes naturalism. Although there may be more "out there" than the stuff we're able to perceive as reality, and even though the interpretations of what we observe as being real can be wrong, we have no alternative way of knowing; thus the process of "doing" science assumes realism

Front 118

Define realism

Back 118

Realism is the idea that what we perceive as "real" is actually is real

Front 119

Define naturalism

Back 119

Naturalism is the idea that natural processes explain the world we perceive as "real"

Front 120

Define science

Back 120

Science is a diciple of study that tries to explain the natural world using crtical obersvational tests of ideas and questions that are usually derived by the combination of observation and logic

Front 121

How is science's use of observation different from its use of revelation and logic?

Back 121

Science uses logic (and occasionally, revelation) to come up with ideas. It also uses logic to come up with experiments/tests. It uses observation (often in the form of experiments) to validate/ challenge/ test those ideas

Front 122

What distinguishes people from apes?

Back 122

- People have 23 kinds of chromosomes whereas apes have 24 kinds. Interestingly, however, human chromosome 2 is practically identical to ape chromosomes 12 and 13 fused together end to end, AND, our chromosome 2 has the nucleotide sequence of two centromeres and two pairs of telomeres. Chromosomes normally have only one centromere and only one pair of telomeres

- People have a more developed cerebral cortex

- People differ from apes in the alignment of teeth and the size of canines

- There are more distinguishing characteristics, but these are enough for our purposes

Front 123

Which one is the circulatory system?

Back 123

Front 124

Which one is the urinary system?

Back 124

Front 125

Which one is the immune system?

Back 125

Front 126

Which one is the nervous system?

Back 126

Front 127

Which one is the endocrine system?

Back 127

Front 128

Which one is the digestive system?

Back 128

Front 129

What does the circulatory system do?

Back 129

- Transports materials to and from all cells

- Participates in the maintenance of body temperature

- Participates in mechanisms of defense against disease and injury

Front 130

What does the urinary system do?

Back 130

- Maintain the volume and composition of body fluids

- Excretes some waste products

Front 131

What does the immune system do?

Back 131

- Returns excess tissue fluid to the circulatory system

- Participates in both general and specific (immune) defense responses

Front 132

What does the nervous system do?

Back 132

- Detects both external and internal stimuli

- Controls and coordinates rapid responses to these stimuli

- Intergrates the activities of other organ systems

Front 133

What does the endocrine system do?

Back 133

- Produces hormones that regulate many body functions

- Participates with the nervous system in integrative functions

Front 134

What does the digestive system do?

Back 134

- Provides the body with water and nutrients

- (The liver) synthesizes certain proteins and lipids for the body

- (The liver) inactivates many chemicals, including hormones, drugs, and poisions