Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
102 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is the experimental method? |
- involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure its effect on the dependent variable (can be lab/field/natural/quasi) |
|
What is an aim? |
- A general statement of what the purpose of an investigation is (based on theories) |
|
What is a hypothesis? |
- A clear, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated - stated at the start of the study |
|
What are the two types of hypothesis? |
- Directional - Non directional |
|
What are variables? |
- Anything that can vary/change with an investigation - generally used to determine if changing one thing results in a change to another |
|
What is the independent variable (IV)? |
- Aspect manipulated to measure the effect of the DV |
|
What is the dependent variable (DV)? |
- Variable measured and is affected by changing the IV |
|
What is operationalisation? |
- Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured |
|
What two experimental conditions do you need to test the effect of the IV? |
- control - experimental |
|
What are extraneous variables? |
- any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if not controllede - essentially nuisance variables that may just make it harder to detect a result |
|
What are confounding variables? |
- any variable that affects the DV other than the IV, so we can't be sure of what exactly changed the DV (systematically vary with the IV) |
|
What are demand characteristics? |
- cues from the researcher/situation that may reveal the investigation purpose to the participants, possibly leading to the participant changing their behaviour in the research situation (may affect the DV) |
|
What are investigator effects? |
- the investigator's conscious/unconscious behaviour affecting the research (DV) - Includes study design/participant selection/participant interaction/leading questions |
|
What is randomisation? |
- using chance to control bias effects when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions |
|
What is standardisation? |
- using the same formalised procedures/instructions for all participants in a study - ensures non-standardised changes don't act as extraneous variables |
|
What is the experimental design? |
- the different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions |
|
What is an independent groups design? |
- Two groups of participants exposed to two different conditions (control/experimental) |
|
What is a repeated measures design? |
- all participants take part in all conditions of experiment - ISSUES: participants may become aware of the study |
|
What is a matched pairs design? |
- pairs of participants matched on variables that may affect the dependent variable - one member of the pair assigned to condition A, other to condition B |
|
What are the evaluation points of an independent groups design? |
- participants in conditions not the same=participant variables may affect DV - less economical=each participant contributes to one result - no order effects=less likely to expose aims |
|
How do you combat participant variables in an independent groups design? |
- random allocation - ensures participants have same chance of being in one condition as any other |
|
What is counterbalancing? |
- half of the participants experience conditions in one order, the other half in opposite order |
|
What are the evaluation points of repeated measures design? |
- order effects=create boredom/fatigue=cause performance deterioration in second task=confounding variable - participants more likely to find study aim=demand characteristics - participant variables controlled/fewer participants needed |
|
How do you combat order effects in a repeated measures design? |
- counterbalancing |
|
What are the evaluation points of a matched pairs design? |
- participants in single conditions=order effects/demand characteristics less of a problem - participants never matched exactly=may effect the dependent variable - less economical=matching time-consuming/expensive |
|
What are the four types of experimental method? |
- laboratory experiments - field experiments - natural experiments - quasi experiments |
|
What is a laboratory experiment? |
- conducted in a highly controlled environment e.g classroom |
|
What are the strengths of laboratory experiments? |
- high control over extraneous variable=ensure effects on DV are due to IV change=high internal validity - easier to replicate=new extraneous variables don't affect repeats=reliability |
|
What are the limitations of laboratory experiments? |
- artificial=doesn't reflect everyday life=lack external validity=generalisability - participants aware they're in an experiment=demand characteristics - artificial tasks don't reflect real processes=low mundane realism |
|
What is a field experiment? |
- IV is manipulated in a natural, everyday setting |
|
What are the strengths of field experiments? |
- higher mundane realism=natural environment=valid/authentic behaviour (high external validity) |
|
What are the limitations of field experiments? |
- less control of extraneous variables=cause and effect between IV and DV more difficult to establish/precise replication not possible - ethical issues=participants unaware of being studied can't consent |
|
What is a natural experiment? |
- an experiment where the change in the IV isn't by the researcher, but are pre-existing IV - research records effect on DV |
|
What are the strengths of natural experiments? |
- provide opportunities for research that may not be done due to ethical/practical reasons (institutionalised Romanian orphans) - high external validity=involve study of real-life issues as they happen (effects of natural disaster on stress levels) |
|
What are the limitations of natural experiments? |
- naturally occurring event may be rare=reduced opportunities for research=limit generalising to other situations - participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions=less sure if IV affected DV |
|
What is a quasi experiment? |
- IV based on an existing difference between people (age/gender) - no one manipulates it, it just exists |
|
What are the strengths and limitations of a quasi experiment? |
- carried out under controlled conditions=ensure effect on DV is due to IV - cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions=may be confounding variables |
|
What is a population? |
- group of people who are the focus of the researcher's interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn (target population=subset of general population) |
|
What is a sample? |
- group of people who take part in a research investigation - drawn from a (target) population, presumed to be representative |
|
What are the different sampling techniques? |
- random sample - systematic sample - stratified sample - opportunity sample - volunteer sample |
|
What is a random sample? |
- sophisticating sampling;all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected - assign all members of the target population a number and use a randomiser to generate your sample (lottery method) |
|
What is a systematic sample? |
- every nth member of target population chosen for sample - sampling frame of target population produced, organised - sampling system decided and research works through sampling frame |
|
What is a stratified sample? |
- sophisticated form of sampling: sample composition reflects proportions of people in sub groups within target population - identify sub groups (strata) in target population;work out proportions for sample to be representative;no. people per strata chosen (random sampling) |
|
What is an opportunity sample? |
- select anyone willing/available (representative sample too difficult) - ask whoever is around at time of study (e.g in the street) |
|
What is a volunteer sample? |
- participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample (self-selection) - researcher places advert/participants raise hand when researcher asks |
|
What are the evaluation points of a random sample? |
- researcher has no influence on who is selected=no researcher bias - complete target population list hard to get (difficult/time-consuming) - may still end up with an unrepresentative sample - participants may refuse to take part=unrepresentative |
|
What are the evaluation points of a systematic sample? |
- selection system=researcher has no influence=no researcher bias - fairly representative (still could be unrepresentative, although unlikely) - selected participants can refuse to take part |
|
What are the evaluation points of a stratified sample? |
- members of strata randomly selected=beyond researcher influence=no bias - designed to reflect population composition=representative=findings generalisable - cannot reflect how people are different=not complete representation - participants can refuse to take part |
|
What are the evaluation points of an opportunity sample? |
- convenient=less time/effort/money - bias: sample specific to area of study=finding can't be generalised;researcher can select participants who will prove hypothesis correct (research bias) |
|
What are the evaluation points of a volunteer sample? |
- easy/little researcher input/less time-consuming - volunteer bias=may attract a specific type of person=can't generalise findings |
|
What are ethical issues? |
- conflict between participants rights in studies and goals of research to produce valid data |
|
What are the ethical issues with psychological studies? |
- informed consent - deception - protection from harm - privacy and confidentiality |
|
What is informed consent? |
- making participants aware of research aims/procedures/rights/how data will be used=informed judgement to take part - researchers=asking informed consent may cause unnatural behaviour as they know the aim of the study=study meaningless |
|
What is deception? |
- deliberately misleading/withholding info from research participants=cannot give informed consent - can be justified when doesn't cause distress to participants (revealing all info may affect behaviour) |
|
What is protection from harm? |
- participants shouldn't be at any more risk than they would in their daily lives=protected from physical/psychological harm |
|
What is privacy and confidentiality? |
- participants can control info about themselves - under Data Protection Act=right to have personal data protected |
|
What is the BPS code of conduct? |
- BPS code of ethics=ethical guidelines for researchers to observe - closely matched to ethical issues=ensure participants in research treated correctly - ethics committees use cost-benefit approach to see if research is ethically acceptable |
|
How do you deal with the ethical issue of informed consent? |
- participants given consent form with relevant info for their decision (agree=sign) - udner 16 investigations=parental consent required |
|
What are the three types of consent? |
- presumptive consent - prior general consent - retrospective consent |
|
What is presumptive consent? |
- group similar to participants asked if study is acceptable - If they agree, participant consent is presumed |
|
What is prior general consent? |
- participants consent to multiple studies including one involving deception=participants consenting to being deceived |
|
What is retrospective consent? |
- participants asked for consent after study - may not have been aware of participation or may have been deceived |
|
How do you deal with the ethical issue of deception and protection from harm? |
- Debriefing - end of study=participants told true aims and other details of investigation (debrief) - participants told what data will be used for and given right to withhold data - participants concerned about performance reassured behaviour is normal - participants subject to extreme stress should be provided counselling by researchers |
|
How do you deal with the ethical issue of confidentiality? |
- personal details not recorded (anonymity);personal details protected - researchers refer to participants as initials/numbers in write ups of investigation - in briefing/debriefing=participants reminded of their data protection |
|
What is a pilot study? |
- A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation to check that procedures work, allowing the researcher to make changes if needed |
|
What is a single-blind procedure? |
- participants not told the aim of research at the beginning of the studies as well as other details, to control confounding effects of demand characteristics |
|
What is a double-blind procedure? |
- participant and researcher not aware of study aims (usually an independent third party) - mainly used in drug trials with testing real drugs/placebo |
|
What are naturalistic observations? |
- watching/recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur - Aspects of the environment free to vary |
|
What are controlled observations? |
- watching/recording behaviour in structured environment (variable managed)=manipulating independent/extraneous variables |
|
What are covert observations? |
- participant behaviour watched/recorded without their knowledge/consent (ethical if public behaviour being observed) |
|
What are overt observations? |
- participant behaviour watched/recorded with their knowledge/consent |
|
What are participant observations? |
- researcher becomes a member of the group being watched/recorded |
|
What are non-participant observations? |
- Researcher stays out of the group they're watching/recording |
|
What are the evaluation points of naturalistic and controlled observations? |
Naturalistic: high external validity;generalisable;unreplicable;extraneous variable Controlled: less generalisable;replicable;controlled extraneous variables |
|
What are the evaluation points of covert and overt observations? |
Covert: less participant reactivity;increased validity;ethical issues Overt: ethically acceptable;demand characteristics/participant reactivity likely |
|
What are the evaluation points of participant and non-participant observations? |
Participant: increased insight=increased validity;going native=lose objectivity non-participant: stay objective=less bias;may lose insight=decreased validity |
|
What is an unstructured observation? |
- Write everything they see;produces detailed accounts of behaviour;appropriate for small scale observations |
|
What is a structured observation? |
- too much occurring to record all of it;simplify target behaviours which are the focus of the investigation;researcher can quantify observations with pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods |
|
What is continuous sampling? |
- key feature of unstructured observations;all instances of target behaviour are recorded;complex behaviours=not practical |
|
What is event sampling? |
- counting the number of times a certain behaviour occurs in a target individual/group |
|
What is time sampling? |
- recording behaviour in a time frame determined beforehand using a behavioural checklist |
|
What are the evaluation points of structured and unstructured observations? |
Structured: produces quantitative data=easier to compare behaviour;no observer bias;data less rich in detail Unstructured: qualitative data=difficult to observe/record/analyse;data more rich in detail;greater risk of observer bias |
|
What are the evaluation points of behavioural categories? |
- makes data more structured/objective=categories must be clear (observable) - all possible forms of target behaviour must be included on the checklist - categories should not overlap |
|
What are the evaluation points of event and time sampling? |
Event: useful when target behaviour happens infrequently;observer may overlook important details Time: reduces number of observations that have to be made;instances when behaviour sampled may be unrepresentative of whole observation |
|
What are self-report techniques? |
- methods where a person is asked to state/explain in their own feelings/opinions/behaviours/experiences related to a given topic |
|
What are questionnaires? |
- a set of written questions used to assess a person's thoughts/feelings - may be used as part of experiment to assess dependent variable |
|
What are open and closed questions? |
Open: doesn't have fixed range of answers;free to answer how they want;produce qualitative data Closed: fixed number of response;produces quantitative data |
|
What are the strengths of questionnaires? |
- cost-effective=gather lots of data quickly - little effort involve=can be completed without researcher present - produces data easy to analyse=comparisons between groups |
|
What are the limitations of questionnaires? |
- responses may not be true=present themselves positively (demand characteristic=social desirability bias) - produce response bias |
|
What are interviews? |
- live encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee's thoughts - questions may be pre-set or may develop as the interview goes on |
|
What are structured interviews? |
- pre-set questions in fixed order - questionnaire conducted face-to-face |
|
What are unstructured interviews? |
- like a conservation;no set questions;general aim discussed;free flowing interaction;interviewee encouraged to expand |
|
What are semi-structured interviews? |
- between two above types;most common interview;list of pre-set questions;interviewer free to ask follow-up questions |
|
What are the evaluation points of structured and unstructured interviews? |
structured: standardised=easily replicable;reduces differences between interviews;interviewer can't elaborate unstructured: more flexible;not easy analysis=conclusions difficult;interviewee may lie;build rapport=truthful answers |
|
What is the Likert scale? |
- respondent indicates agreement/disagreement using 5 point scale which ranges fro 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree' |
|
What is the Rating scale? |
- Similar to Likert scale, but respondents identify value to represent strength of feeling to a topic |
|
What is a fixed choice option? |
- includes list of possible options, respondents indicate those that apply to them |
|
What do you need to consider when designing an interview? |
- interview schedule=questions - quiet room - neutral questions at start=rapport - reminded of confidential answers |
|
What is 'overuse of jargon'? |
- using technical terms only familiar to those in a specialised field |
|
What is 'emotive language/leading questions'? |
- author's attitude to topic becomes clear in questions=interviewer bias |
|
What is 'double barreled questions/double negatves'? |
- double barrelled: 2 questions in 1=respondents may agree with on half and not the other - double negatives: difficult to decipher |
|
What are the evaluation points of primary and secondary data? |
primary: authentic data collected;questionnaires designed to target info researcher needs;takes time/effort to produce secondary: cheap/easy access=minimal effort;desired info may already exist;vary in quality/accuracy=outdated;content may not match researcher's needs |