Ap Psychology Terms [Ch.00-18]

Front 1

Empiricism

Back 1

the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment

Front 2

Structuralism

Back 2

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Front 3

Functionalism

Back 3

a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Front 4

Psychology

Back 4

the science of behavior and mental processes

Front 5

Nature-nurture issue

Back 5

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributes that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

Front 6

Basic research

Back 6

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Front 7

Applied research

Back 7

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Front 8

Clinical psychology

Back 8

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Front 9

Psychiatry

Back 9

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drugs) treatments as well as psychological therapy

Front 10

Natural selection

Back 10

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Front 11

Hindsight bias

Back 11

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (aka I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Front 12

Critical thinking

Back 12

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and asses conclusions

Front 13

Theory

Back 13

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

Front 14

Hypothesis

Back 14

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Front 15

Operational definition

Back 15

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables

Front 16

Replication

Back 16

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Front 17

Case study

Back 17

an observational technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Front 18

Survey

Back 18

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

Front 19

False consensus effect

Back 19

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Front 20

Population

Back 20

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

Front 21

Random sample

Back 21

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Front 22

Naturalistic observation

Back 22

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Front 23

Correlation coefficient

Back 23

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Front 24

Scatter plot

Back 24

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables and the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

Front 25

Illusory correlation

Back 25

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Front 26

Experiment

Back 26

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

Front 27

Double-blind procedure

Back 27

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants received the treatment or a placebo

Front 28

Placebo effect

Back 28

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

Front 29

Experimental condition

Back 29

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Front 30

Control condition

Back 30

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluation the effect of the treatment

Front 31

Random assignment

Back 31

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Front 32

Independent variable

Back 32

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Front 33

Dependent variable

Back 33

the experimental factor- in psychology, the behavior or mental process- that is being measured; the variable that may chance in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Front 34

Mode

Back 34

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

Front 35

Mean

Back 35

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Front 36

Median

Back 36

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are about it and half are below it

Front 37

Range

Back 37

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Front 38

Standard deviation

Back 38

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Front 39

Statistical significance

Back 39

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Front 40

Culture

Back 40

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Front 41

Biological psychology

Back 41

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

Front 42

Neuron

Back 42

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Front 43

Dendrite

Back 43

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Front 44

Axon

Back 44

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Front 45

Myelin sheath

Back 45

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

Front 46

Action potential

Back 46

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; it is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane

Front 47

Threshold

Back 47

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Front 48

Synapse

Back 48

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron (the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft)

Front 49

Neurotransmitters

Back 49

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Front 50

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Back 50

a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction

Front 51

Acetylcholine (ACh) - Major functions and effects

Back 51

muscle movement, attention, heart rate, memory, emotion, learning, digestion

Hint 51

Deficiency is associated with Alzheimer's disease
Nicotine = ACh agonist (mimics)
Curare = ACh antagonist

Front 52

Dopamine - Major functions and effects

Back 52

voluntary movement, learning, memory, pleasure, attention

Hint 52

Excess is associated with schizophrenia
Deficiency is associated with Parkinson's, tremors, ADHD

Front 53

Serotonin - Major functions and effects

Back 53

sleep, wakefulness, appetite, mood, aggression, impulsiveness, sensory perception, temperature regulation

Hint 53

Deficiency is associated with depression

Front 54

Endorphins - Major functions and effects

Back 54

pain relief, pleasure

Hint 54

Runner's high
body's natural pain killers

Front 55

Norepinephrine (aka noradrenaline) - Major functions and effects

Back 55

learning, memory, dreaming, awakening, emotion, stress-related increase in heart rate, stress-related slowing of digestive processes

Hint 55

Deficiency is associated with depression

Front 56

GABA - Major functions and effects

Back 56

main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain - decreases chance of action potential

Hint 56

Deficiency is associated with seizures, tremors, insomnia, epilepsy, Huntington's disease

Front 57

Glutamate - Major functions and effects

Back 57

main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain - increases chance of action potential, memory

Hint 57

Excess is associated with neurotoxic (neuron cell death), multiple sclerosis, migraines, seizures

Front 58

Endorphins

Back 58

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitter liked to pain control and to pleasure

Front 59

Nervous system

Back 59

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Front 60

Central nervous system (CNS)

Back 60

the brain and spinal cord

Front 61

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Back 61

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Front 62

Nerves

Back 62

neural "cables" contraining many axons; these bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands and sense organs

Front 63

Sensory neurons

Back 63

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

Front 64

Interneurons

Back 64

central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Front 65

Motor neurons

Back 65

neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

Front 66

Somatic nervous system

Back 66

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (aka skeletal nervous system)

Front 67

Autonomic nervous system

Back 67

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

Front 68

Sympathetic nervous system

Back 68

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Front 69

Parasympathetic nervous system

Back 69

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Front 70

Reflex

Back 70

a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus such as the knee-jerk response

Front 71

Neural networks

Back 71

interconnected neural cells; with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results

Front 72

Lesion

Back 72

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Front 73

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Back 73

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface; these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

Front 74

CT (computer tomography) scan

Back 74

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body (aka CAT scan)

Front 75

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

Back 75

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

Front 76

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

Back 76

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

Front 77

Brainstem

Back 77

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Front 78

Medulla

Back 78

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Front 79

Reticular formation

Back 79

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Front 80

Thalamus

Back 80

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on the top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Front 81

Cerebellum

Back 81

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

Front 82

Limbic system

Back 82

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex; includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Front 83

Amygdala

Back 83

two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

Front 84

Hypothalamus

Back 84

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion

Front 85

Cerebral cortex

Back 85

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Front 86

Glial cells

Back 86

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons

Front 87

Frontal lobes

Back 87

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

Front 88

Parietal lobes

Back 88

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear; includes the sensory cortex

Front 89

Occipital lobes

Back 89

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

Front 90

Temporal lobes

Back 90

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear

Front 91

Motor cortex

Back 91

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Front 92

Sensory cortex

Back 92

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

Front 93

Association areas

Back 93

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

Front 94

Aphasia

Back 94

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

Front 95

Broca's area

Back 95

controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Front 96

Wernicke's area

Back 96

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Front 97

Plasticity

Back 97

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

Front 98

Corpus callosum

Back 98

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Front 99

Split brain

Back 99

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly of the corpus callosum) between them

Front 100

Endocrine system

Back 100

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Front 101

Hormones

Back 101

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

Front 102

Adrenal

Back 102

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys; the adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which helps to arouse the body in times of stress

Front 103

Pituitary gland

Back 103

the endocrine system's most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Front 104

Chromosomes

Back 104

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

Front 105

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Back 105

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

Front 106

Genes

Back 106

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Front 107

Genome

Back 107

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes

Front 108

Mutation

Back 108

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change in the sequence of nucleotides; the source of all genetic diversity

Front 109

Evolutionary psychology

Back 109

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection

Front 110

Gender

Back 110

the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

Front 111

Behavior genetics

Back 111

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental

Front 112

Environment

Back 112

every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Front 113

Identical twins

Back 113

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Front 114

Fraternal twins

Back 114

twins who develop from separate eggs; they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

Front 115

Temperament

Back 115

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Front 116

Heritability

Back 116

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; the heritability of a trait that may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

Front 117

Interaction

Back 117

the dependence of the effect of one factor (such as environment) on another factor (such as heredity)

Front 118

Molecular genetics

Back 118

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Front 119

Norm

Back 119

an understanding rule for accepted and expected behavior ("proper" behavior)

Front 120

Personal space

Back 120

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

Front 121

Memes

Back 121

self-replicating ideas, fashion, and innovations passed from person to person

Front 122

X chromosome

Back 122

the sex chromosome found in both men and women; females have two X chromosomes; males have one

Front 123

Y chromosome

Back 123

the sex chromosome found only in males; when paired with an X sex chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

Front 124

Testosterone

Back 124

the most important of the male sex hormones; both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulate the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Front 125

Role

Back 125

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position out to behave

Front 126

Gender role

Back 126

a set of expected behaviors for males and for females

Front 127

Gender identity

Back 127

one's sense of being male or female

Front 128

Gender-typing

Back 128

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Front 129

Social learning theory

Back 129

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Front 130

Gender schema theory

Back 130

the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male or female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly