Ap Psychology

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hindsight bias

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refers to the tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it.

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critical thinking

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Careful reasoning that examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

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theory

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explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts behaviors or events.

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hypothesis

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testable prediction, often implied by a theory; testing the hypothesis helps scientists to test the theory.

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operational definition

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A precise statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.

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replication

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Process of repeating an experiment, often with different participants and in different situations, to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other people and circumstances.

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case study

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Observation technique in which one person is studied in great depth, often with the intention of revealing universal truths.

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survey

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Technique for ascertaining the self reported attitudes or behaviors of a representative, random sample of people.

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false consensus effect

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Tendency to to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

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population

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Consists of all the members of a group being studied.

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random sample

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A sample that is representative because every member of the population has an equal chance of being included.

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naturalistic observation

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Involves observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations. Without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

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correlation

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is a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Correlation coefficient is statistical measure of the relationship.
+1.0 = perfect positive
0 = no correlation
- 1.0 = perfect negative

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scatterplot

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A depiction of the relationship between two variables by means of a graphed cluster of dots.

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illusory correlation

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Perception of a relationship where none exists.

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experiment

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Research method in which a researcher directly manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) in order to observe their effect on on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable); experiments therefore make it possible to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

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double-blind procedure

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An experimental procedure in which neither the experimenter nor the research participants are aware of which condition is in effect. It is used to prevent any potential bias or placebo effect from taking place.

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placebo effect

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Occurs when the results of an experiment are caused by a participant's expectations about whats really going on.

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experimental condition

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Condition of an experiment in which participants are exposed to the independent variable being studied

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control condition

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random assignment

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independent variable

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dependent variable

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mode

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mean

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median

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range

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standard deviation

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statistical significance

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culture

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Synapse

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the junction between two neurons (axon-to-dendrite) or between a neuron and a muscle

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motor neurons

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neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

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sensory neurons

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neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

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peripheral nervous system

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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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Sympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

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neural networks

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interconnected neural cells. WIth experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.

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lesion

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tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

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Reticular formation

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a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

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medulla

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the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

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cerebellum

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the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

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hypothalamus

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limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions

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limbic system

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A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

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cerebral cortex

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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

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frontal lobe

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The lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, judgment, and impulsive behavior.

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parietal lobe

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lobe posterior to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch

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occipital lobe

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portion posterior to the parietal and temporal lobes, responsible for vision

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temporal lobe

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The portion of the cerebral cortex that is just above the ears and that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.

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motor cortex

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located at the rear of the frontal lobes and it controls voluntary movements.

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sensory cortex

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The sensory cortex is at the front of the parietal lobes and registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

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Association areas

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Association areas are the areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. Humans have more association areas than lower mammals such as a mouse.

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Broca's Area

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Broca's area controls language. The part of the frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

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Wernicke's area

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Wernicke's area controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression. receives info from sensory cortexes and converts to code for the rest of the brain.

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plasticity

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Plasticity is the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

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corpus collossum

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The corpus collossum is the thick band of neurons that connect the left and right hemispheres together. Relays the message from one side to another. Doctors would cut it to end communication between the two brain hemispheres to end epileptic seizures. Caused by excessive communication between the two brain hemispheres.

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Ach

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neurotransmitter involved in memory and movement. too little is associated with Alzheimer's disease

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agonist

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An agonist is a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter. Used to pass the blood brain barrier to treat Parkinson's.

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antigonist

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An antigonist is a molecule that blocks receptors in the brain. i.e painkillers.

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thalamus

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the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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aphasia

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Aphasia is the inability to use or understand language either spoken or written because of a brain lesion or damage to the left cerebral hemisphere.

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left cerebral hemisphere

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controls the majority of functions on the right side of the body, on the right side of the body, controls logic, language, rational thinking

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Right cerebral hemisphere

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on the left side of the body, controls creativity, visual thinking, impulses, Controls the majority of functions on the left side of the body

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Identical twins

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identical twins are twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

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fraternal twins

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fraternal twins are twins that develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

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testosterone

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the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

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personal space

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the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. this "space" varies across different cultures

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norms

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rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members.

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cultural differences

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Things like religion, language, names, food, dress, customs, music, and family are all cultural differences.

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collectivist culture

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cultural perspective which places interdependence, cooperation and social harmony take precedence over personal goals.

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individualist culture

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culture in which personal accomplishments are a more important component of one's self-concept than group membership

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gender-typing

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The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.

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gender roles

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attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex

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chromosomes

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threadlike structure within the nucleus containing the genetic information that is passed from one generation of cells to the next

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heritability

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the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. the heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

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temperament

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characteristic frame of mind; disposition; emotional excess; adj. temperamental: of temperament; having frequent changes of temper; ex. temperamental dislike of sports; ex. temperamental actress

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evolutionary psychology

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the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

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genetic disposition

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an explanation for deviance- intelligence to low intelligence leads to crime, the XYY theory, Body types- squarish figures commit street crimes.

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alzheimer's

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a progressive form of presenile dementia that is similar to senile dementia except that it usually starts in the 40s or 50s; first symptoms are impaired memory which is followed by impaired thought and speech and finally complete helplessness

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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gender schema

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the set of traits and behaviors by which a child learns to classify male and female gender roles and by which the child models and measures his or her own relation to those roles

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mutation

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a change in a cell's genetic material. Once the genetic material has changed, the change is inherited by the offspring of that cell

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natural selection

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process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called survival of the fittest

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genomes

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the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

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genes

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the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

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DNA

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deoxyribonucleic acid, the material that contains the information that determines inherited characteristics

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gender identity

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your identity as it is experienced with regard to your individuality as male or female

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nature

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the complex of emotional and intellectual attributes that determine a person's characteristic actions and reactions

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nurture

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nourish; educate; foster

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behavior geneticist

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one who studies the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

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adopted children studies

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A study in which investigations seek to discover whether, in behavior and psychological characteristics, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment, or more like their biological parents, who contributed to their heredity. Another form of the adoption study is to compare adoptive and biological siblings

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selective mating

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In domesticated animals, the process of a breeder developing a cultivated breed over time & selecting qualities within individuals of the breed that will be best to pass on to the next generation. Synonymous with "artificial selection".

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social learning theory

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the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

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developmental psychology

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branch of psychology concerned with the physical, emotional, social, and cognitive change that occurs throughout the lifespan.

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zygote

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fertilized egg

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embryo

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developing prenatal organism from 2 weeks to 2months after conception

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fetus

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developing prenatal human from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

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teratogens

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literally poisons- any drugs viruses etc. that can cause harm to the developing child.

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fetal alcohol syndrome

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the physical and cognitive abnormalities that result from heavy drinking by a pregnant woman to her child.

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rooting reflex

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newborn's tendency to turn towards anything near the face and open mouth to search for the nipple.

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habituation

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simple form of learning commonly used to study infant cognition. the decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus that is frequently presented.

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maturation

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refers to the biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior and are relatively uninfluenced by experience/ environmental factors.

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schemas

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mental concepts or frameworks that organize and interpret info.

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assimilation

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interpreting a new experience in terms of an existing schema

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accommodation

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changing an existing schema to incorporate new info that can't be assimilated.

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cognition

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refers to all of the mental processes related to thinking, remembering, knowing, and communicating.

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sensorimotor stage

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from birth-2 years, infants gain knowledge of the world through senses and motor activities.

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object permanence

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awareness that things don't cease to exist when they aren't visible/percieved. develops during sensorimotor stage.

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preoperational stage

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from 2-6 or 7 years of age. language development is rapid but the child is unable to understand the mental operations of concrete logic.

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conservation

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principle that properties such as number, volume, and mass remain constant despite changes in the forms of the objects; it is acquired during the concrete operational stage.

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egocentrism

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refers to the difficulty in that preoperational children have in considering another's viewpoint.

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theory of mind

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our ideas about our own and other's thoughts, feelings, and perceptions and the behaviors these might predict.

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autism

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disorder that appears during childhood and is marked by deficiencies in communication, social interaction, and theory of mind.

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concrete operational stage

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lasting from 6 or 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about concrete events and objects.

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formal operation stage

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begins at around 12 years, people can begin to think logically and clearly about abstract concepts.

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stranger anxiety

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fear of strangers that infants begin to display at about 8 months of age.

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attachment

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emotional tie to another person shown in younger children by their seeking closeness to a caregiver and showing distress upon separation.

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critical period

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limited time shortly after birth in which the child needs to be exposed to certain experiences or stimuli to develop properly.

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imprinting

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process by which certain animals form attachments during a limited critical period during early life.

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basic trust

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sense that the world is predictable and and trustworthy- a concept that infants form if their needs are met by responsive caregiving.

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self-concept

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persons concept of identity and personal worth.

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adolescence

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life stage from puberty to adulthood. denoted physically by growth spurts and maturation of primary and secondary sex characteristics.

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puberty

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early adolescent period of sexual maturation.

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primary sex characteristics

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body structures that are relevant to reproduction. i.e. ovaries, testes and external genitalia.

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secondary sex characteristics

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non-reproductive sexual characteristics i.e. female breasts and male voice quality, and body hair.

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menarche

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first menstrual period

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intimacy

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ability to establish close and loving relationships, Erickson's theory asserts that it is the primary task of late adolescence and early adulthood.

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menopause

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cessation of menstruation, typically occurs in the late fifties. also biological and psychological changes experienced during a woman's years of declining ability to reproduce.

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alzheimer's disease

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progressive and irreversible brain disorder that is caused by deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine. characterized by a gradual loss of memory, reasoning, language, and finally physical functioning.

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cross-sectional study

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people of different ages are compared with one another.

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longitudinal study

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same people are tested and retested over a period of years.

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crystallized intelligence

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refers to vocabulary and general knowledge that reflect accumulative learning.

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fluid intelligence

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refer's to a person's ability reason speedily and abstractly. declines with age.

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social clock

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refers to the culturally accepted timing of social events such as leaving home, marrying, having children, and retiring.

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identity

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one's sense of self-primary task of adolescence according to Erickson.

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sensation

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the faculty through which the external world is apprehended

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perception

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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

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bottom-up processing

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analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

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top-down processing

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information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

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psychophysics

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the branch of psychology concerned with quantitative relations between physical stimuli and their psychological effects

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absolute threshold

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the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

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signal detection theory

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a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.

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subliminal stimulus

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stimulus below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

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priming

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the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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difference threshold

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the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.)

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Weber's law

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the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

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sensory adaptation

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Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

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transduction

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conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

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wavelength

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The distance between crests of waves, such as those of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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intensity

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the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

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pupil

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the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

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iris

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a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

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lens

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the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

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accommodation

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the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

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retina

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the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

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acuity

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Sharpness of vision

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nearsightedness

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A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina

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farsightedness

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A condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina

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rods and cones

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visual receptors that transduce light neural impulses. The rods are concentrated in the periphery of the retina, the cones in the fovea.

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optic nerve

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the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

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blindspot

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the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

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fovea

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the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

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feature detectors

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nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

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parallel processing

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the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

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Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic theory

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the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.

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opponent-process theory

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the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

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color constancy

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perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

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audition

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the sense or act of hearing

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pitch

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the highness or lowness of a sound

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middle ear

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the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

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cochlea

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a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

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inner ear

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the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

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place theory

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in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

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frequency theory

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in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

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conduction hearing loss

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hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

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sensorineural hearing loss

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hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

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cochlear implant

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a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

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gate-control theory

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theory that spinal cord contains neurological gate that blocks pains signals or allows them to pass. gate is opened by activity of pain going up small nerve fibers & gate is closed by act of large fibers or by info coming from brain

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sensory interaction

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the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

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kinesthesis

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the ability to feel movements of the limbs and body

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vestibular sense

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the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

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selective attention

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the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect

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inattentional blindness

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failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

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visual capture

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The tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

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gestalt

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An organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

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figure-ground

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the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

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grouping

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the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

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depth perception

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the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

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visual cliff

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a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

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binocular cues

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depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

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retinal disparity

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a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the close the object

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convergence

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a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

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monocular cues

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depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

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phi phenomenon

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an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

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perceptual constancy

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perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

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perceptual adaptation

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in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

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perceptual set

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a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

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human factors psychology

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a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

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extrasensory perception

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the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

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parapsychology

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The study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

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consciousness

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Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

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biological rhythms

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periodic physiological fluctuations

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circadian rhythm

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the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

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REM sleep

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rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

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alpha waves

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the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

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sleep

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Periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness

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hallucinations

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false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

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delta waves

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The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

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insomnia

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recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

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narcolepsy

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a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

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sleep apnea

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A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

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night terrors

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a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

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dreams

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occur most often during REM sleep; may be caused by activation-synthesis, or may be a way of cementing memories

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manifest content

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according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

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latent content

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according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

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REM rebound

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The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

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hypnosis

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a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

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posthypnotic suggestion

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a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

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dissociation

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a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

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psychoactive drugs

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Chemicals that affect the nervous system and result in altered consciousness

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tolerance

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the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

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withdrawal

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The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

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physical dependence

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a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

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psychological dependence

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a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

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addiction

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Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

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depressants

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drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

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barbiturates

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drugs that depress the activity of the Central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

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opiates

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opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

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stimulants

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drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

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amphetamines

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drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

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methamphetamine

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a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

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Ecstacy

Back 231

synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen that makes euphoria and social intimacy, also called the "club drug" --> causes dangerous level of dehydration and lowers blood pressure to extent of death in some cases --> makes feel happy for short time, leading to depression later

Front 232

Hallucinogens

Back 232

psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Front 233

LSD

Back 233

A powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).

Front 234

THC

Back 234

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

Front 235

near-death experience

Back 235

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

Front 236

dualism

Back 236

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

Front 237

monism

Back 237

the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing

Front 238

learning

Back 238

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Front 239

associative learning

Back 239

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Front 240

classical conditioning

Back 240

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Front 241

behaviorism

Back 241

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Front 242

unconditioned response

Back 242

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Front 243

unconditioned stimulus

Back 243

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

Front 244

conditioned response

Back 244

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Front 245

conditioned stimulus

Back 245

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Front 246

acquisition

Back 246

the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Front 247

extinction

Back 247

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Front 248

spontaneous recovery

Back 248

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Front 249

generalization

Back 249

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Front 250

discrimination

Back 250

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Front 251

operant conditioning

Back 251

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Front 252

respondent behavior

Back 252

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning

Front 253

operant behavior

Back 253

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Front 254

law of effect

Back 254

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Front 255

operant chamber

Back 255

a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.

Front 256

shaping

Back 256

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Front 257

reinforcer

Back 257

any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

Front 258

positive reinforcement

Back 258

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Front 259

negative reinforcement

Back 259

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Front 260

primary reinforcers

Back 260

events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Front 261

conditioned reinforcers

Back 261

Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers

Front 262

continuous reinforcement

Back 262

the reinforcement of a desired response every time it occurs

Front 263

partial reinforcement

Back 263

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Front 264

fixed-ratio schedule

Back 264

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Front 265

variable-ratio schedule

Back 265

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Front 266

fixed-interval schedule

Back 266

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Front 267

variable-interval schedule

Back 267

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Front 268

punishment

Back 268

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Front 269

cognitive map

Back 269

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Front 270

latent learning

Back 270

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Front 271

intrinsic motivation

Back 271

A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective

Front 272

extrinsic motivation

Back 272

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

Front 273

observational learning

Back 273

A type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

Front 274

modeling

Back 274

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Front 275

mirror neurons

Back 275

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Front 276

prosocial behavior

Back 276

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Front 277

Encoding

Back 277

first step in memory. the information that is sensed is converted to code the brain understands.

Front 278

Storage

Back 278

process in which the encoded information is placed in to the brain's memory.

Front 279

Retrieval

Back 279

the process by which the brain brings the information that is stored back at conscious thought for use.

Front 280

recall

Back 280

measure of retention in which must remember with few clues past learned information.

Front 281

recognition

Back 281

measure of retention in which one need only to identify rather than recall past information.

Front 282

acoustic encoding

Back 282

processing information into memory by the use of sound.

Front 283

semantic encoding

Back 283

processing info into memory through the meaning or personal meaning.

Front 284

state-dependent memory

Back 284

recalling info is based on the current physiological state of the organism in question.

Front 285

Implicit memories

Back 285

implicit memory is info that is learned such as tasks. it requires a more primitive part of the brain (cerebellum) AKA procedural memory.

Front 286

Explicit memory

Back 286

facts names, images, events, etc. AKA declarative memory.

Front 287

hippocampus

Back 287

the neural center located in the limbic system important in processing explicit memories.

Front 288

cerebellum

Back 288

neural center that processes sensory input and coordinates movements.

Front 289

flashbulb memory

Back 289

unusually vivid memory in response to a important, pivotal, or event of great significance in one's life.

Front 290

effortful processing

Back 290

active encoding that requires effort to process.

Front 291

automatic processing

Back 291

encoding that occurs almost automatically with little effort.

Front 292

mood-congruent theory

Back 292

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with the person's current mood.

Front 293

mnemonic device

Back 293

a device devised to aid in memory. often use imagery and organizational devices. I.E. PERSIA

Front 294

Ebbinghaus

Back 294

German philosopher that investigated the concept of memory. the Pavlov of memory research he discovered amount learned is reflected by time spent learning.

Front 295

Loftus

Back 295

American psychologist. She is known for her work on eyewitness memory and the misinformation effect.

Front 296

Freud

Back 296

psychologist that was important in the sub field of psychoanalysis. Freud believed that dreams reflected past inner turmoil.

Front 297

serial position effect

Back 297

tendency for items at the beginning and end of a list to be remembered well while the middle is not often remembered as clearly.

Front 298

rehearsal

Back 298

conscious effortful repetition of information in order to maintain in consciousness or encode for storage.

Front 299

iconic memory

Back 299

visual sensory memory. perfect photographic memory that lasts little beyond a few tenths of a second.

Front 300

echoic memory

Back 300

short term memory of sounds such as words heard in the recent 3-4 seconds.

Front 301

short term memory

Back 301

AKA working memory, is the conscious memory that can hold only about seven items at a time.

Front 302

long term memory

Back 302

the relatively permanent and unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short term memory may pass.

Front 303

priming

Back 303

activation sometimes unconscious activation of a web of associations between memories in order to retrieve a desired memory.

Front 304

method of loci

Back 304

using routine places as a device to remember certain info by creating associations.

Front 305

chunking

Back 305

memory aid, if digits or letters are chunked into meaningful units then they are easier to remember.

Front 306

retroactive interference

Back 306

disruptive effect of something recently learnedon old knowledge.

Front 307

proactive interference

Back 307

disruptive effect of something you already learned on your efforts to learn or recall new info.

Front 308

long-term potentiation

Back 308

LTP- increase in a synapse's firing potential follwoing brief, rapid stimulation. LTP is believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory.

Front 309

spacing effect

Back 309

the concept that extended and distributed rehearsal practice or studying results in better long-term retention.

Front 310

misinformation effect

Back 310

the tendency of eyewitnesses to incorporate misleading information about an event into their memories.

Front 311

source amnesia

Back 311

the event in which a event is misattributed to the wrong source.

Front 312

rosy retrospection

Back 312

Memories are often looked on as pleasant in retrospect even though the event itself wasn't that great.

Front 313

memory construction

Back 313

related to schemas in which previous detalils are assumed from experience and aid in memory of similar events.

Front 314

repression

Back 314

a example of motivated forgetting for painful and unacceptable memories and them being prevented from entering into the consciousness. basic defense mechanism of psychoanalytic theory.

Front 315

motivated forgetting

Back 315

forgetting memories that the individual has a desire to not remember.

Front 316

next-in-line effect

Back 316

the phenomenon in which an individual fails to say name of person behind them because they are focusing on their own performance.

Front 317

hierarchical organization

Back 317

organizing items into categories and subcategories to remember certain concepts.

Front 318

self-reliance effect

Back 318

We tend to remember info that has a meaning to us.

Front 319

cognition

Back 319

Cognition is the combined function of thinking, remembering, knowing, and communicating information.

Front 320

concept

Back 320

A concept is a mental gathering of similar events, concepts and people.

Front 321

prototype

Back 321

A prototype is the ideal example of a particular category.

Front 322

algorithm

Back 322

a standard fixed procedure to approach and solve problems with. like a formula. sometimes it can be slow but it guarantees success.

Front 323

heuristic

Back 323

relatively simple thinking strategies that allow us to make decisions and judgment calls. unlike algorithms they are more efficient, but they do not always guarantee success.

Front 324

insight

Back 324

sudden and unique realization to the answer of a problem can lead to success after trial and error or inspire a new instance of trial and error.

Front 325

confirmation bias

Back 325

a typical obstacle in problem solving. it is the tendency to look for evidence that confirms our own beliefs/preconceptions on the subject matter at hand.

Front 326

fixation

Back 326

the difficulty in not being able to look at a problem in a new way.

Front 327

mental set

Back 327

the tendency to apply a problem-solving strategy even when it is no longer helpful.

Front 328

functional fixedness

Back 328

this is a type of fixation where the individual can only think of other tings in relation to their own functions.

Front 329

representativeness heuristic

Back 329

tendency to predict the likelihood of things in respects to how well they conform to one's own prototypes.

Front 330

availability heuristic

Back 330

based on guessing the probability of certain events depending on how quickly they come to mind.

Front 331

overconfidence

Back 331

tendency to overestimate the correctness of one's own beliefs and judgments.

Front 332

framing

Back 332

the way a question is worded which can affect people's perception on of the issue/answer to the question/problem.

Front 333

belief bias

Back 333

tendency for one's preconceptions/beliefs to become an obstacle in objective reasoning.

Front 334

belief perseverance

Back 334

the tendency for people to continue to support a particular belief even though they are given info that invalidates that belief.

Front 335

language

Back 335

spoken, written, or gestured words and how they are used to carry meaning

Front 336

phonemes

Back 336

smallest unit of language. these sounds are relatively distinctive for different languages.

Front 337

morphemes

Back 337

smallest units of language that carry meaning. the word "dogs" has four phonemes, but two morphemes. "dog" and "s" this meaning dog (concept) and there are multiple ("s").

Front 338

grammar

Back 338

the rules that allow us to organize language so that we can understand and communicate with others.

Front 339

semantics

Back 339

aspect of grammar that allows us to acquire meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language.

Front 340

syntax

Back 340

aspect of grammar that specifies the rules of sentence structure to create grammatically sound sentences to allow for effective communication.

Front 341

babbling

Back 341

stage of speech development in infants at around 4 months. characterized by spontaneous utterance of speech-related sounds.

Front 342

one-word stage

Back 342

stage between 1-2 years when babies speak in single words.

Front 343

two-word stage

Back 343

stage starting at around 2 years when children begin to speak mostly in two-word sentences.

Front 344

telegraphic speech

Back 344

the economical (unwasteful) telegram-like speech of children in the two-word stage. However the words are in grammatical order indicating the child has gained an understanding of the languages syntactic rules.

Front 345

linguistic determinism

Back 345

Benjamin Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

Front 346

Apes and language

Back 346

scientists beleive that apes do possess language to some extent, but nowhere near human capability. some skeptics believe it is merely conditioning. however, Washoe and her adoptive baby learned to sign with each other and eventually other apes in the enclosure began to sign to one another to communicate.

Front 347

Tversky and Kahneman

Back 347

Two cognitive psychologists that identified the representativeness and availability heuristic.

Front 348

intuition

Back 348

smart intuition that is created through experience can be very useful. I.E. an expert chess player will know the right move after a short glance at the board.

Front 349

Critical period

Back 349

There is an ideal timeframe for children to acquire a first language and truly master it. proven to be the same with apes and sign language.

Front 350

Flynn

Back 350

Psychologist that coined the Flynn effect that states the intelligence goes up over time. Standards must be adapted.

Front 351

Binet

Back 351

French Psychologist that created the first intelligence test to prepare French students for appropriate learning curriculum and to identify those who needed more help.

Front 352

Sternberg

Back 352

proposed the triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: compnential, experiential, and contextual

Front 353

Spearman

Back 353

believed we have one general intelligence (g) and granted that people often have special abilities that stand out; developed factor analysis- a procedure that identifies clusters of related items

Front 354

Gardner

Back 354

proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that divides intelligence into seven different types, all of which are equally important

Front 355

Skinner

Back 355

Psychologist known for his studies on operant conditioning.

Front 356

reification

Back 356

Mistaking an abstract concept for a concrete thing.

Front 357

validity

Back 357

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Front 358

predictive validity

Back 358

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

Front 359

content validity

Back 359

The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Front 360

reliability

Back 360

The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Front 361

standardization

Back 361

Ensuring that a test has an average and standards based on intelligence scores from a representative sample.

Front 362

g factor

Back 362

A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity

Front 363

factor analysis

Back 363

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score

Front 364

components of creativity

Back 364

1. Expertise
2. Imaginative thinking skills
3. A venturesome personality
4. Intrinsic Motivation
5. A creative Environment

Front 365

mental retardation

Back 365

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

Front 366

savant syndrome

Back 366

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

Front 367

Stanford-Binet

Back 367

The widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test

Front 368

WISC

Back 368

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children; intelligence test for school-age children

Front 369

WAIS

Back 369

(Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) Verbal & performance scores. Most widely used intelligence test today

Front 370

Scholastic Aptitude Test

Back 370

test designed to assess a general capacity to learn and used to predict future academic achievement

Front 371

IQ

Back 371

intelligence quotient; created by Lewis Terman based off of Binet's concept of mental age; numerical value given to intelligence that is determined from the scores on an intelligence test; average score is 100;

Front 372

heritability

Back 372

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Front 373

bell curve

Back 373

distribution of scores in which the bulk of the scores fall toward the middle, with progressively fewer scores toward the "tails" or extremes

Front 374

Flynn effect

Back 374

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

Front 375

stereotype threat

Back 375

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Front 376

normal distribution

Back 376

Bell-shaped curve that results when the values of a trait in a population are plotted against their frequency

Front 377

emotional intelligence

Back 377

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Front 378

intrinsic motivation

Back 378

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Front 379

extrinsic motivation

Back 379

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Front 380

convergent thinking

Back 380

a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one

Front 381

achievement

Back 381

knowledge and skills gained from experience and education

Front 382

aptitude

Back 382

a natural talent or ability; quickness in learning

Front 383

Educational effect on intelligence test scores

Back 383

Intelligence scores are increased. A type of environmental effect due to an increase in this item over recent years.

Front 384

divergent thinking

Back 384

a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems

Front 385

Down's syndrome

Back 385

is a chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome.. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance

Front 386

spatial abilities

Back 386

Abilities involved in learning, remembering and navigating environments

Front 387

motivation

Back 387

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Front 388

instinct

Back 388

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Front 389

drive-reduction theory

Back 389

This attempts to explain behavior as arising from a physiological need that creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Front 390

homeostasis

Back 390

This refers to the body's tendency to maintains balanced or constant internal state.

Front 391

incentives

Back 391

Positive or negative environmental stimuli that motivate behavior.

Front 392

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Back 392

This proposes that a person's basic needs for survival must be filled before pursuing higher needs such as belonging and self-actualization.

Front 393

glucose

Back 393

Blood sugar is the the major source of energy for the body's tissues. Elevating the level of glucose in the body will reduce hunger.

Front 394

set point

Back 394

An individual's regulated weight level, which is maintained by adjusting food intake and energy output.

Front 395

basal metabolic rate

Back 395

Body's base rate of energy expenditure when resting.

Front 396

anorexia nervosa

Back 396

An eating disorder characterized by restricting food intake in order to become significantly underweight and still feeling convinced they are fat. Most common among in adolescent females.

Front 397

bulimia nervosa

Back 397

An eating disorder characterized by binge-eating followed by compensatory vomiting and lots of exercise.

Front 398

sexual response cycle

Back 398

Described by Masters and Johnson as having four stages of bodily reaction: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Front 399

refractory period

Back 399

resting period after orgasm during which a male cannot be aroused to another orgasm.

Front 400

sexual disorder

Back 400

A problem such as erectile disorder, premature ejaculation, and orgasmic disorder-that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

Front 401

estrogen

Back 401

A sex hormone secreted in greater amount by females than by males. In mammals other than humans, estrogen levels peak during ovulation and triggers sexual receptivity.

Front 402

testosterone

Back 402

A sex hormone secreted in greater amounts by males than by females. In males, higher testosterone levels stimulate the prenatal growth of the male sex organs and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Front 403

sexual orientation

Back 403

This refers to a person's enduring attraction to members of the same or opposite sex.

Front 404

flow

Back 404

State of focused consciousness on a task that optimally engages a person's skills often accompanied by a diminished awareness of self and time.

Front 405

industrial-organizational psychology (I/O)

Back 405

Subfield of psychology that studies and advises on issues related to optimizing behavior in workplaces.

Front 406

personnel psychology

Back 406

Subfield of I/O psychology that applies psychological methods and principles to to the selection and evaluation of workers.

Front 407

organizational psychology

Back 407

Subfield of I/O psychology that explores how work environments and management styles affect worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

Front 408

structured interview

Back 408

An interview in which an interviewer asks the same job-relevant questions of all interviewees, who are then rated on established evaluation scales.

Front 409

achievement motivation

Back 409

Desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; and for attaining a high standard.

Front 410

task leadership

Back 410

A goal-oriented leadership that sets standard, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals.

Front 411

social leadership

Back 411

Group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support.

Front 412

ventromedial hypothalamus

Back 412

Depresses hunger; stimulation causes cessation of eating while destruction of this speeds up digestion and the organism will gain weight as a result.

Front 413

lateral hypothalamus

Back 413

This initiates the urge to eat. Damage to the area can remove hunger while stimulation triggers hunger pangs.

Front 414

orexin

Back 414

hunger-triggering hormone released by lateral hypothalamus when an organism is hungry.

Front 415

ghrelin

Back 415

hunger arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach.

Front 416

leptin

Back 416

Hormone that regulates energy intake and energy expenditures.

Front 417

PYY

Back 417

Hormone that reduces appetite released by the ventromedial hypothalamus.

Front 418

erotic plasticity

Back 418

The degree to which someone's sex drive can be changed or formed by a cultural/societal norms.

Front 419

homosexuality

Back 419

An attraction to the same sex.

Front 420

heterosexuality

Back 420

an attraction to the opposite sex.

Front 421

360-degree feedback

Back 421

When an employee gives feedback on coworkers and employers while the other employees and employers complete the same process.

Front 422

interviewer illusion

Back 422

The concept that interviewers can be biased towards whoever they like more in an interview and not based on qualifications so much.

Front 423

ostracism

Back 423

Being excluded from a group, shunned, silent treatment or other such exclusion from a group.

Front 424

James-Lange Theory

Back 424

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Front 425

Cannon-Bard theory

Back 425

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

Front 426

two factor theory

Back 426

Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

Front 427

facial feedback effect

Back 427

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

Front 428

relative deprivation

Back 428

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Front 429

adaptation level principle

Back 429

our tendency to judge stimuli relative to our previous experiences; (ex. if your GPA surges, you feel an initial surge of pleasure, then adopt to this new level of achievement and need something more to be happy)

Front 430

spillover effect

Back 430

when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up

Front 431

catharsis hypothesis

Back 431

releasing aggressive energy relieves aggressive urges

Front 432

amygdala

Back 432

an almond-shaped neural structure in the anterior part of the temporal lobe of the cerebrum

Front 433

feel-good-do-good phenomenon

Back 433

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

Front 434

guilty knowledge test

Back 434

alternative to the polygraph test that relies on the premise that criminals harbor concealed knowledge about the crime that innocent people don't

Front 435

cognitive labeling

Back 435

Schachter and Singer's theory that it is the combination of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal that leads to the experience of emotion.

Front 436

polygraph

Back 436

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion

Front 437

epinephrine/noepinephrine

Back 437

fight/flight and rest/digest

Front 438

Yerkes Dodson Law

Back 438

evidences arousal theory; the more complex a task, the lower level of arousal that can be tolerated without interference before the performance deteriorates; ex. used in class-driving to school, driving angry, finding a new location, boiling an egg

Front 439

right prefrontal cortex

Back 439

disgust

Front 440

left prefrontal cortex

Back 440

joy

Front 441

lymphocytes

Back 441

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

Front 442

cortisol

Back 442

an adrenal-cortex hormone (trade names Hydrocortone or Cortef) that is active in carbohydrate and protein metabolism

Front 443

Type A

Back 443

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Front 444

Type B

Back 444

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

Front 445

metabolic rate

Back 445

The rate at which the body burns calories to produce energy.

Front 446

set point

Back 446

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

Front 447

fat cells

Back 447

Cells (also called adipose cells) that serve as storehouses for liquefied fat in the body; their number is determined by both genes and eating habits, and they decrease in size but not in number with weight loss.

Front 448

behavioral medicine

Back 448

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

Front 449

health psychologist

Back 449

study the interaction between physical and psychological health factors. They may investigate how stress or depression leads to physical ailments such as ulcers, cancer or the common cold.

Front 450

problem-focused coping

Back 450

Attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Front 451

epinephrine

Back 451

adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster

Front 452

norepinephrine

Back 452

neurotransmitter that is involved in arousal and the fight-or-flight system (also mood, sleep, and learning)

Front 453

explanatory styles

Back 453

ways in which people explain themselves or react in different situations, can be positive or negative

Front 454

fight or flight

Back 454

a reaction caused by adrenaline that prepares one to either fight the stressor or take flight and escape.

Front 455

General Adaptation Syndrome

Back 455

Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion

Front 456

perceived control

Back 456

The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes

Front 457

macrophage

Back 457

Large white blood cell that removes bacteria, foreign particles, and dead cells

Front 458

biofeedback

Back 458

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Front 459

relaxation training

Back 459

Procedures that help people relax; include progressive muscle relaxation and deep breathing; may also include guided imagery and forms of meditation or hypnosis.

Front 460

immune system

Back 460

the cells, tissues, and organs that protect the body from disease. the immune system is composed of the white blood cells, bone marrow, thymus gland, spleen and other parts

Front 461

atherosclerosis

Back 461

the most common form of CVD; a disease characterized by plaques along the inner walls of the arteries.

Front 462

psychophysiological illness

Back 462

Literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.

Front 463

stress

Back 463

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Front 464

autonomic nervous system

Back 464

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Front 465

acetylcholine

Back 465

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Front 466

serotonin

Back 466

a neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep,arousal,and mood. appears in lower than normal levels in depressed persons

Front 467

personality

Back 467

an individuals characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Front 468

free association

Back 468

in psychoanalysis a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Front 469

psychoanalysis

Back 469

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Front 470

unconscious

Back 470

according to Freud a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts wishes feelings and memories. according to contemporary psychologists information processing of which we are unaware.

Front 471

id

Back 471

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

Front 472

ego

Back 472

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

Front 473

superego

Back 473

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

Front 474

psychosexual stages

Back 474

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

Front 475

Oedipus complex

Back 475

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Front 476

identification

Back 476

the process by which according to Freud children incorporate their parents values into their developing superegos.

Front 477

fixation

Back 477

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

Front 478

defense mechanisms

Back 478

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

Front 479

repression

Back 479

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

Front 480

regression

Back 480

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

Front 481

reaction formation

Back 481

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

Front 482

projection

Back 482

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Front 483

rationalization

Back 483

defense mechanism that offers self justifying explanations in place of the real more threatening unconscious reasons for ones actions

Front 484

displacement

Back 484

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

Front 485

collective unconscious

Back 485

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.

Front 486

projective test

Back 486

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

Front 487

Thematic Apperception Test

Back 487

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Front 488

Rorshach Inkblot test

Back 488

The most widely used projective test, as set of 10 inkblots, the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Front 489

terror-management theory

Back 489

proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death

Front 490

self-actualization

Back 490

according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.

Front 491

unconditional positive regard

Back 491

according to Rogers an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

Front 492

self-concept

Back 492

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Front 493

trait

Back 493

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act as assessed by self report inventories and peer reports

Front 494

personality inventory

Back 494

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality trait.

Front 495

Minnesota Multiphasic Personaliity Inventory

Back 495

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders this test is now used for many other screening purposes

Front 496

empirically derived test

Back 496

a test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

Front 497

social-cognitive perspective

Back 497

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context

Front 498

reciprocal determinism

Back 498

the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors.

Front 499

personal control

Back 499

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.

Front 500

external locus of control

Back 500

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate

Front 501

internal locus of control

Back 501

the perception that you control your own fate

Front 502

learned helplessness

Back 502

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Front 503

spotlight effect

Back 503

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

Front 504

self-esteem

Back 504

one's feelings of high or low self-worth.

Front 505

self-serving bias

Back 505

A readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

Front 506

positive psychology

Back 506

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.

Front 507

psychological disorder

Back 507

deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional behavior patterns

Front 508

attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Back 508

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

Front 509

medical model

Back 509

the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured. When applied to psychological disorders, the medical model assumes that these mental illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, which may include treatment in a psychiatric hospital.

Front 510

DSM-IV

Back 510

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

Front 511

anxiety disorders

Back 511

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Front 512

generalized anxiety disorder

Back 512

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

Front 513

panic disorder

Back 513

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations

Front 514

phobia

Back 514

an anxiety disorder characterized by extreme and irrational fear of simple things or social situations

Front 515

obsessive compulsive disorder

Back 515

An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsession) and/ or actions (compulsions).

Front 516

post-traumatic stress disorder

Back 516

an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

Front 517

mood disorders

Back 517

psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder.

Front 518

major depressive disorder

Back 518

a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities

Front 519

mania

Back 519

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state

Front 520

bipolar disorder

Back 520

a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania

Front 521

schizophrenia

Back 521

a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

Front 522

delusions

Back 522

False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.

Front 523

personality disorders

Back 523

Psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.

Front 524

antisocial personality disorder

Back 524

a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist

Front 525

dissaociative disorder

Back 525

disorders in which conscious awarensss becomes separated from previous memories thoughts and feelings

Front 526

dissociation identity disorder

Back 526

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder

Front 527

psychotherapy

Back 527

an emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties.

Front 528

biomedical therapy

Back 528

prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system.

Front 529

eclectic approach

Back 529

an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.

Front 530

psychoanalysis

Back 530

Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences-and the therapist's interpretations of them-released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

Front 531

resistance

Back 531

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.

Front 532

interpretation

Back 532

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.

Front 533

transference

Back 533

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).

Front 534

client-centered therapy

Back 534

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate client's growth.

Front 535

active listening

Back 535

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy.

Front 536

behavior therapy

Back 536

therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.

Front 537

counterconditioning

Back 537

a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning. Includes exposure therapy and aversive conditioning.

Front 538

exposure therapies

Back 538

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid.

Front 539

systematic desensitization

Back 539

a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

Front 540

virtual reality exposure therapy

Back 540

an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders or public speaking.

Front 541

aversive conditioning

Back 541

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).

Front 542

token economy

Back 542

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.

Front 543

cognitive therapy

Back 543

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.

Front 544

cognitive-behavior therapy

Back 544

a popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior).

Front 545

family therapy

Back 545

therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family members; attempts to guide family members toward positive relationships and improved communication.

Front 546

meta-analysis

Back 546

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.

Front 547

psychopharmacology

Back 547

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.

Front 548

tardive dyskinesia

Back 548

involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target D2 dopamine receptors.

Front 549

electroconvulsive therapy

Back 549

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient.

Front 550

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

Back 550

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.

Front 551

psychosurgery

Back 551

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior.

Front 552

lobotomy

Back 552

a now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.

Front 553

social psychology

Back 553

The scientific study of how we think about influence and relate to one another.

Front 554

attribution theory

Back 554

suggests how we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the persons disposition.

Front 555

fundamental attribution error

Back 555

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Front 556

attitude

Back 556

feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predisposes us to respond in a particular way to objects people and events.

Front 557

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

Back 557

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Front 558

cognitive dissonance theory

Back 558

the theory that we act to reduce discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Front 559

conformity

Back 559

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Front 560

normative social influence

Back 560

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Front 561

informational social influence

Back 561

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept other's opinions about reality.

Front 562

social facilitation

Back 562

stronger responses on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others.

Front 563

social loafing

Back 563

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Front 564

deindividuation

Back 564

the loss of self-awareness and the self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Front 565

group polarization

Back 565

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

Front 566

groupthink

Back 566

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Front 567

prejudice

Back 567

an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Front 568

stereotype

Back 568

a generalized belief about a group of people. sometimes accurate but overgeneralized.

Front 569

discrimination

Back 569

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

Front 570

ingroup

Back 570

"Us" people with whom one shares a common identity.

Front 571

outgroup

Back 571

"them" those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup.

Front 572

ingroup bias

Back 572

tendency to favor one's own group.

Front 573

scapegoat theory

Back 573

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Front 574

just-world phenomenon

Back 574

the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Front 575

aggression

Back 575

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

Front 576

frustration-aggression principle

Back 576

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal-creates anger, which can generate aggression.

Front 577

conflict

Back 577

A perceived incompatibility of action's goals, or ideas.

Front 578

social trap

Back 578

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Front 579

mere exposure effect

Back 579

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

Front 580

passionate love

Back 580

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

Front 581

companionate love

Back 581

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

Front 582

equity

Back 582

A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give into it.

Front 583

self-disclosure

Back 583

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

Front 584

altruism

Back 584

unselfish regard to the welfare of others.

Front 585

bystander effect

Back 585

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Front 586

social exchange theory

Back 586

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Front 587

reciprocity norm

Back 587

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

Front 588

social-responsibility norm

Back 588

An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

Front 589

superordinate goals

Back 589

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

Front 590

GRIT

Back 590

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction- a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.