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179 Cards in this Set
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Mary Ainsworth
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Deveolopmental Psychology
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Placed human infants into a "strange situation" to examine attachment to parents
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Solomon Asch
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Social Psychology
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Conformity Experiment--people incorrectly reported lengths of lines
Impression formation study--professor was warm or cold |
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Albert Bandura
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Learning and Personality
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Social-learning theory (modeling)
Reciprocal determinism (triadic reciprocality) Self-efficacy |
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Alfred Binet
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Testing and Individual Differences
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Developmental Psychology and the creation of the first intelligence test
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Noam Chomsky
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Cognition
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Theorized the critical-period hypothesis for language acquisition
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Erik Erikson
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Developmental Psychology
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Psychological stage theory of development (8 stages)
Neo-Freudian |
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Sigmund Freud
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Personality and States of Consciousness
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Psychosexual stage theory of personality (oral, anal, phallic, and adult genital)
Stressed importance of unconsciousness and sexual drive Psychoanalytic therapy Theory of dreaming |
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Carol Gilligan
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Developmental Psychology
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Challenged the universality of Kohlberg's moral development theory
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Harry Harlow
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Developmental Psychology
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Experimented with infant monkeys and attachment
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David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
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Sensation and Perception
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Discovered feature detectors, groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual stimuli
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William James
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Methods, History and Approaches
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Published "The Principles of Psychology", psychology's first textbook
Functionalism |
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Lawrence Kohlberg
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Developmental Psychology
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Stage theory of moral development (precoventional, conventional, and postconventional)
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Elizabeth Loftus
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Cognition
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Demonstrated the problems with eyewitness testimony and constructive memory
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Abraham Maslow
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Motivation and Emotion, and Treatment of Psychological Disorders
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Humanistic Psychology
Hierarchy of needs, self-actualization |
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Stanley Milgram
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Social Psychology
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Obedience studies--participants think they are shocking a learner
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Ivan Pavlov
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Learning
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Classical conditioning studies with dogs and salivation
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Jean Piaget
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Developmental Psychology
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Stage theory of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, conrecte operations, and formal operations)
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Robert Rescorla
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Learning
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Developed the contingency model of classical conditioning
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Carl Rogers
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Treatment of Psychological Disorders, and Personality
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Humanistic Psychology--person-centered therapy and unconditional positive regard
Self theory of personality |
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Stanley Schachter
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Motivation and Emotion
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Two-factor theory of emotion
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B.F. Skinner
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Learning
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Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning Invented Skinner box |
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John Watson
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Learning
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Father of behaviorism
Baby Albert experiment--classically conditioned fear |
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Benjamin Whorf
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Cognition
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The linguistic relativity hypothesis
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Wilhelm Wundt
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History and Approaches
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Set up the first psychological laboratory in an apartment near the university at Leipzig, Germany
Theory of structuralism |
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Waves of Psychology
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A wave of psychological thought is a certain mindset that dominates the field for a certain time
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Wave 1-Introspection
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Research via accurate recordings of cognitive reactions to stimuli
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Wave 2-Gestalt Psychology
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Examining not just the pieces that make up a person's experience, but also how they affect the person
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Wave 3-Psychoanalysis
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Delving into a person's unconscious mind to find thoughts and memories that have been repressed from the conscious mind due to trauma, etc.
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Wave 4-Behaviorism
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Drawing conclusions from research exclusively on observable phenomena, such as behavior, stimuli, and responses
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Wave 5-Multiple Perspectives
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Current wave of psychology with no one definite way of thinking. Psychologists often call themselves eclectic for this reason
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Humanist Perspective
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Psychological mindset that revolves around individual choice and free will
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Deterministic Perspective
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Mindset stating that all behaviors are caused by past conditioning
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Biopsychology (Neuroscience)
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Field of psychology that addresses all thought and behavior as caused by biological processes
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Evolutionary (Darwinian) Perspective
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School of thought stating that all thought and behavior derives from natural selection
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Cognitive Perspective
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Mindset that focuses on how a person interprets their environment
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Social-Culture (Sociocultural) Perspective
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Field that observes behavior and thought and derivitives from and person's culture
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Correlation
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The relationship between two variables. Does not imply a cause and effect relationship
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Positively Correlated
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The relationship wherein the prescence of one variable means the prescence of the other
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Negatively Correlated
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The relationship wherein the prescence of one variable means the abscence of the other
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Correlation Coefficient
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Number between -1 and 1 that represents the strength of the correlation
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Scatter Plot
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A graph of points that can be used to determine correlation
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Inferential Statistics
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Used to determine the accuracy of a sample's representation of the greater population
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Hindsight Bias
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The tendency, upon hearing the results of research, to assume that one knew it all along
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Applied Research
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The type of research that has a clear, immediate application in the real world
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Basic Research
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Research focused on answering questions of interest, but doesn't have an immediate real world application
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Hypothesis
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States a possible relation between the independent and dependent variables of an experiment
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Operational Definition
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An explanation of how a researcher intends to define and measure a variable
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Valid Research
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Valid research is accurate research. It measures what it was meant to measure
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Reliable Research
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Reliable research is consistent and capable of being replicated
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Sample
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A group of participants taken from a greater population, designed to represent said population
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Random
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Used differently than in common speech, selecting something at random means that everything in the given population has an equal chance of being selected
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Laboratory Experiment
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Experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment, making it easier to manipulate variables
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Field Experiment
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Experiment conducted out in the real world, where it is much more realistic
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Confounding Variable
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A variable, other than the independent variable, that has an effect on the dependent variable
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Assignment
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The process of placing participants into groups, be they experimental or control
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Participant-Relevant Confounding Variable
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A confounding variable that stems from a participant's control over their assignment
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Group Matching
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Assignment wherein it is insured that both groups have the same amount of a certain variable (gender, age, etc.)
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Situation-Relevant Confounding Variable
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Confounding variable brought upon by differences between the group's environment during the researching
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Experimenter Bias
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An experimenter's unconscious tendency to treat participants differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis
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Double-Blind Procedure
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Method that eliminates Participant and Experimenter Bias, most commonly by having a third party, who is blind to the participant's condition, act as a middle-man
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Hawthorne Effect
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Discovery that, by simply selecting a sample group from a population, the results of an experiment are altered
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Placebo Method
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Used in drug research, the experimental group recieves the actual drug, while the control group recieves a fake but identical drug, thus removing psychological confounding variables
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Order Effects
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When using a group as their own control, confounding variables may occur due to early tests affecting later ones
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Counterbalancing
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The solution to order effects, it is done by having one half of the group take the tests in one order, and the other half take it in the reverse order
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Descriptive Statistics
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Statistics describing a set of data
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Frequency Distribution
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Details the quantity of any particular object that is part of the study. Can be mapped via a line graph (frequency polygon) or a bar graph (histogram)
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Mean
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Another word for the average of a set of numbers. Attained by adding the numbers together and dividing by the amount of numbers
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Median
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The center point in a set of numbers. When there are equal amounts of numbers on either side of the middle, the median is the average of the two middle numbers
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Mode
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The most frequently occuring number/object. There can be more than one mode.
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Outlier
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A dramatically different number, be it higher or lower, that distorts the accuracy of the graph
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Positively Skewed
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A graph with an outlier much higher than the other points is positively skewed
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Negatively Skewed
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A graph with an outlier point much lower than the others
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Standard Deviation
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A set amount used to measure the diversity of the graph. The higher the number, the more diverse.
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z Score
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The z score is the distance, in terms of standard deviation, of one point from the mean
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Neuroanatomy
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The study of the parts and functions of neurons
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Neuron
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An individual nerve cell
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Dendrites
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Rootlike tendrils that form synaptic pathways between neurons
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Cell body (soma)
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Contains the cell's nucleus and other vital structures
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Axon
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Wirelike structure that leads from the cell body to a terminal button
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Myelin Sheath
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A coating of fat over some axons, serving the purpose of speeding up neural transmissions
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Terminal Buttons
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A branched end of an axon that houses neurotransmitters
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Neurotransmitters
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Chemicals within the terminal buttons that enable communication between neurons. They operate like a lock and key would, with different chemicals fitting into different slots
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Synapse
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The gap between one cell's terminal buttons and another's dendrites
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Action potential
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The electric signal transmitted by a neuron. It travels down the axon at 120 meters per second and releases neurotransmitters into the synapse between the axon and the terminal button
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All-or-None Principle
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The fact that a neuron either fires an action potential completely or not at all. There is no halfway point.
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Excitatory Neurotransmitter
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A neurotransmitter that prompts the next cell into firing an action potential
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Inhibitory Neurotransmitter
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A neurotransmitter that deters the next cell from firing an action potential
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Acetylcholine
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A neurotransmitter that deals with motor movement. A lack of this can cause Alzheimer's Disease
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Dopamine
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A neurotransmitter that deals with alertness and motor movement. Too little can cause Parkinson's Disease, and too much can cause schizophrenia
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Endorphins
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A neurotransmitter that deals with pain control and addictions
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Serotonin
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A neurotransmitter that deals with mood control. Too little can result in clinical depression
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Afferent Neurons
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Neurons that move information toward the brain.
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Efferent Neurons
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Neurons that move information from the brain to the rest of the body
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Interneurons
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Neurons that transfer information throughout the brain and to efferent neurons
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Central Nervous System
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All nerves encased in bone (brain and spinal cord)
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Peripheral Nervous System
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All nerves not surrounded by bone. Divided into the somatic and autonomic systems
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Somatic Nervous System
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Deals with voluntary motor movements
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Operates the automatic systems of the body (heart, lungs, blood pressure, etc.) Divided into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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Controls involuntary survival responses, conserving energy for more important tasks when it percieves the need
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Slows down the body after a stress response from the Sympathetic system
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Spinal Reflexes
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The reflex responses that are executed by the spine as a survival mechanism, such as pulling away from intense heat or cold
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Accidents (effects on research)
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In the case of a mishap that leads to brain damage, scientists can determine what functions different cranial sections perform, based on changes in behavior and which area(s) were damaged
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Lesions
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Although it is never done specifically for research, the surgical removal or destruction of a part of the brain can give the same opportunity for study as would accidental damage to the brain
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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A type of scan that detects brain waves during different levels of consciousness, which is useful in sleep studys
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Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)
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An X-ray scan that uses multiple cameras and vantage points to produce a 3-D image of the brain, used to find different shapes, such as a tumor, but not brain functions
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
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An MRI works to the same end as a CAT scan (a 3-D image of the brain), but uses different means to achieve a more detailed image, and does not expose the patient to carcinogenic radiation because it does not use X-rays
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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A scan that measures chemical activity in different areas of the brain in order to determine what tasks activate those areas
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Functional MRI (fMRI)
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A new type of scan that combines PET and MRI scans, relating brain structure and activity by giving information about blood flow to different areas of the brain
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Hindbrain
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The section of the brain located at the top of the spinal cord. It regulates functions that are vital to life and consists of the Medulla, the Pons, and the Cerebellum
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Medulla
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Deals with blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing, and is located above the spinal cord
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Pons
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Located just above and to the front of the medulla, it controls facial expressions and connects the hindbrain to the midbrain and forebrain
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Cerebellum
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Involved in habitual muscle patterns, such as tracking a target with one's eyes or playing an instrument, it resembles a smaller version of the brain attached to the bottom of the larger version
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Midbrain
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This small area of the brain relates sensory information and muscle movements to form coordinated patterns. Specifically, its reticular structure is crucial for maintaining focus, and without it, one falls into a coma
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Forebrain
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Dealing with thought and reason, the forebrain is larger than the other areas, and is considered to be what makes humans human. It consists of the Thalamus, the Hypothalamus, the Amygdala and the Hippocampus
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Thalamus
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Located at the top of the brain stem, its purpose is to forward sensory messages from the spinal cord to the rest of the forebrain
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Hypothalamus
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A rather small area near the thalamus, it regulates metabolic functions, such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, etc.
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Amygdala and Hippocampus
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The hippocampus are two arms encompassing the thalamus, with an amygdala at the end of each one. The amygdala serve as emotional centers, while the hippocampus are memory processing areas, sending the various memories on to the cerebral cortex for storage
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Cerebral Cortex
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The cerebral cortex is what many people picture as the brain: the gray, wrinkled looking web of densely packed neurons that covers the brain
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Hemispheres
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The two halves of the cerebral cortex look identical, but serve different purposes in some instances. Each one controls muscle movements on the opposite side of the body
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Frontal Lobes
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Large portions of the cerebral cortex located behind the eyes. The frontmost part of these lobes plays an executive role in thought processes, determining outcomes and planning to achieve goals, as well as controlling emotions and abstract thought
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Parietal Lobes
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Behind the frontal lobes, they deal with touch sensations
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Occipital Lobes
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Located at the farthest point from the eyes, these lobes recieve optical signals
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Temporal Lobes
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These lobes deal with audio signals
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Endocrine System
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The bodily system that manufactures hormones to affect different biological processes throughout the body
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Adrenal Glands
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Producing adrenaline, these glands get the body ready for "fight or flight"
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Ovaries and Testes
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These glands produce estrogen and testosterone respectively
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Genetics
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Many human traits, both physical and abstract, come from the genetic code
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Twins
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Twins share identical genetic material, having come from the same zygote. When raised seperately, there are some differences in personality, etc., but there are more similarities than differences
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Chromosonal Abnormalities
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When certain chromosones are produced more or less than they are normally, it can result in different syndromes, such as Down Syndrome
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Transduction
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The process by which the different senses turn external signals into neural impulses
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Sensory Adaptation
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The decline of perception of a certain sensation due to prolonged exposure to the corresponding stimuli
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Sensory Habituation
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The incline or decline of perception of a certain sensation due to how consciously focused a person is on that particular sensation
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Cocktail-Party Phenomenon
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The involuntary shifting of focus upon hearing one's name
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Cornea
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The protective covering over the eye
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Pupil
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The shutter-like opening that regulates the amount of light that enters the eye
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Iris
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The muscles that control the dialation of the pupil
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Retina
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The screen like collection of neurons at the back of the inner eye that is activated by different wavelengths of light
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Rods
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Cells in the inner eye that respond to black and white
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Cones
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Cells in the inner eye that respond to color
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Fovea
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Small indent on the back wall of the inner eye that has the most cone cells. Used for more intense concentration on color
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Ganglion Cells
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The cells that send neural impulses to the brain if enough cones and/or rods fire
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Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)
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The region of the thalamus that recieves neural messages from the Ganglion Cells and sends them on to the Occipital Lobe
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Blind Spot
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The part of the inner eye where the optic nerve goes back toward the thalamus. There are no cones or rods here, because it's essentially a hole
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Optic Chiasm
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The spot where the optic nerve cells taking information to either cranial hemisphere cross each other
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Feature Detectors
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Different groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different visual images (vertical lines, curves, motion, etc.)
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Trichromatic Theory
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One theory explaining color vision. It states that there are three types of cones, one type each for red, blue, and green. These primary colors of light work together to form all hues of the visual spectrum. This theory does not explain afterimages or color blindness
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Opponent Process Theory
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Theory stating that visual sensors come in pairs of opposite colors (red/green, blue/yellow, etc.). If one sensors fires, the other is subdued. This also explains afterimages and colorblindness. If you stare at one color long enough, you fatigue its sensors, thus making the other half of the pair stronger, creating an afterimage. If an individual type of sensors is missing from a pair, color blindness may occur
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Amplitude
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The height of a sound wave. Determines the volume
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Frequency
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The length of the sounds waves. Determines the pitch
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Ear Canal
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The tunnel from the outer ear to the eardrum
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Eardrum (Tympanic Membrane)
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A membrane that vibrates when sound waves hit it. It is connected to the hammer bone and vibrates it when it is hit with sound
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Hammer, Anvil, and Stirrup
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A set of three small bones just behind the eardrum. It transmits vibrations from the eardrum to the oval window
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Oval Window
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Another membrane, much like the Eardrum, that sends vibrations into the cochlea
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Cochlea
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A snailshell shaped structure filled with fluid. When the oval window vibrates, the fluid moves. The cochlea's floor is lined with hair cells connected to the organ of Corti
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Organ of Corti
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Neurons activated by vibrations of the cochlea's hair cells. It sends neural impulses to the brain when activated
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Place Theory
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Theory stating that the differing placement of hair cells along the cochlea allows for the distinction of pitch
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Frequency Theory
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Theory stating that the place theory is correct in terms of higher pitches, but not lower ones. It holds that lower pitchs are detected due to the rate at which the hair cells fire
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Conduction Deafness
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A deafness that occurs due to a problem in the system leading up to the cochlea. This can be repaired with surgery
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Nerve Deafness
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A deafness that stems from damage to the hair cells in the cochlea, usually from loud noise. This is far more difficult to treat, because there is currently no known way to regrow the hair cells
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Gate-Control Theory
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Theory of touch that explains why some touch sensations block out others. It holds that when one sensation is of higher priority than another (ie. pain over warmth), the lower priority sensation is cut off until the higher priority one is dealt with
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Papillae
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The visible bumps on the tongue that house the taste buds
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Olfactory Bulb
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Gathers messages from the olfactory receptor cells and sends them through the amydala and into the hippocampus, which may explain why smell is such a strong trigger for memories
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Vestibular Sense
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The inner sense of balance controlled by semicircular canals partially filled with fluid, located in the inner ear. When this fluid is agitated, it can cause diziness or nausea
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Kinesthetic Sense
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The inner sense of the body's spacial orientation to itself. Combined with visual perception, neural receptors in the muscles tell the brain where the various limbs are located
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Absolute Threshold
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The smallest amount of stimulus one can detect
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Subliminal
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Refers to any stimulus under the absolute threshold. The commonly understood meaning of subliminal messaging is not supported by psychological studies, as no truly subliminal messages could ever be detected
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Difference Threshold
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The smallest amount of perceivable change in stimulus
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Weber's Law
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Holds that the more intense a certain stimulus is, the more change it must undergo for one to perceive said change
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Signal Detection Theory
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The theory pertaining to the effects of competing stimuli and how one deals with interfering perceptions
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Response Criteria
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The motivations and expectations that contribute to determining which stimulus, in the midst of many stimuli, will be chosen as most important
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False Positive
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When a person believes they perceive a stimulus that isn't there
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False Negative
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When a person does not perceive a real stimulus
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Top-down Processing
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The perception process during which the mind fills in the gaps based on expectations and context
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Schemata
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Mental representations of the world, and how one expects the world to be
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Perceptual Set
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Predisposition to percieving situations in certain ways
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Backmasking
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Having a greater chance of percieving something amongst chaos if you expect to percieve it
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Bottom-up Processing
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Reverse of top-down processing. Intstead of filling in the gaps, one uses the individual parts of a percieved object to determine what said object is
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Figure-ground Relationship
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A part of visual perception which requires one to determine which parts of an image are background, and which parts are the objects
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Gestalt Rule
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The fact that objects are usually percieved as part of groups as opposed to individual things. Perception of different groups can be affected by proximity between individual objects, similarity of the objects, the continuity of objects, or closure of many individual objects making a larger, recognizable shape
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