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228 Cards in this Set
- Front
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endocrine system
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regulate long-term processes (growth, development, reproduction), uses chemical messengers to relay information and instructions between cells
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direct communication
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exchange of inos and molecules between adjacent cells across gap junctions/connexicons, occurs between cells of same kind, high specialized and rare
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paracrine communication
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chemical signals transfer info from cell to cell within a single tissue, most common from of intercellular communication
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endocrine communication
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endocrine cells release hormones to blood and alters many metabolic activities of many organs and tissues at once
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amino acid derivatives
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hormones: small molecules, similar in structure to amino acids, derivaties of tyrosine and tryptophan
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derivatives of tyrosine
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thyroid hormones, catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine)
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derivatives of tryptophan
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serotonin, melatonin
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peptide horomones
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chains of amino acids, most are synthesized s prohormones. glycoproteins, small proteins, antidieuretic, oxytocin, growth hormone, prolactin, all hormones secreted by hypotalamus, heart, thymus, digestive tract
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prohormones
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inactive molecules converted to active hormones before/after secretion
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glycoproteins
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protrins that are 200+ amino acids long with carbohydrate side chains. ex: thyroid stimulating hormone, lutenizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone
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lipid derivatives
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local hormones, more perocrine than endocrine contains eicoonoid
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eicosonoid
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derived from aracidonic acid (20 carbon chain), paracrine factors that coordinate cellular activities like blood clotting
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prostaglandins
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lipid derivatives that coordinate local cellular activities
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thromboxanes
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lipid derivatives that are converted from prostaglandins with strong paracrine effects
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steroid hormones
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derivatives of cholesterol all share 4 carbon ring structure, released by reproductive organs, cortex of adrenal gland and kidneys, bind to specific transport protein in plasma so remain in circulation longer
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lipid soluble hormones
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eicosanoids, steroids
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non lipid soluble hormones
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catecholamines and peptide hormones
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g protein
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enzyme complex coupled to membrane receptor, links 1st and 2nd messenger
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adenylate cyclase
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activated when hormone binds to receptor at membrane surface and changes concentration of 2nd messenger (cyclic AMP)
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humoral stimuli
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changes in composistion of extracellular fluid is the trigger endocrine reflex
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amplification
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binding of a small number of hormones leads to thousands of secondary messangers
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down-regulation
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presence of hormone trigger a decrease in number of hormone receptors, makes it less sensitive to it
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up-regulation
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absence of hormone triggers increase in # of receptors, become more sensitive to it
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neuroendocrine reflex
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pathways include both neural and endocrine components change the amount/pattern of hormone release
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pituitary gland
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in sella turcica, releases 9 important peptide hormones
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median eminence
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vasculature connecting hypothalamus to pituitary gland
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hypophyseal portal system
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begins and ends in capillary bed, blood vessels that link hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, keeps out of general circulation
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TRH
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from hypothalamus to act on pituitary and release TSH
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CRH
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from hypothalamus to pituitary to release ACTH
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GnRH
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from hypothalamus to pituitary to release LH
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posterior lobe of pituitary
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unmyelinated axons of hypothalamic neurons
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thyroid follicles
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hollow spheres lined by cuboidal epithelium, surround cavity containing viscous colloid
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c cell of thyroid
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secrete thyroid hormone calictonin, regulate calcium in body fluids
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binding thyroid hormone
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thyroid-binding globulins (70-80%), transthyretin and albumin
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effect of thyroid hormone
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development of skeleton and muscle, energy utilization, makes sympathetic stimulation more sensitive
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effect of parathyroid hormone
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stimulates osteoclast, inhibits osteoblast, enhance reabsorption of Ca2+, stimulates formation of calcitrol by kidneys
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calcitrol
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active form of vitamin D, enhances absorption in digestive tract of Ca2+ and PO4-
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adrenal cortex
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stores lipids esp. cholesterol and fatty acids, manufactures steroid hormones (coritcosteriods)
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adrenal medulla
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secretory activities controlled by sympathetic nervous system, produces epinephrine and norepinephrine
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zona glomerulosa
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out region of adrenal cortex, profuces mineralcorticoids to effect mineral content
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aldosterone
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stimulates conservation of sodium ions and elimination of potassium ions
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zona fasiculata
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middle of adrenal cortex, produces glucocorticoids
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glucocorticoids
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accelerate glucose snthesis and glycogen formation: anti-inflammatory effects & other immune response
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zona reticulatis
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inner region of adrenal cortex: network of endocrine cells, produces androgens under stimulation by ACTH (male source of androgens)
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percentages of adrenal medulla release
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70-80% epinephrine, 20-25% norepinephrine,
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beta cells in pancreas
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secrete insulin
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melatonin
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inhibits repoructice functions, protects against damage by free radicals, influences circadian rhythms
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alpha cells in pancreas
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secrete glucagon
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delta cells of pancreas
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secrete somatostatin (GH-IH) to moderate growth when glucose is low
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F cells of pancreas
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secrete pancreatic polypeptide to regulate release of enzymes for digestion
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diabetes mellitus
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glucose concentrations high enough to overwhelm reabsorption capabilities of kidneys
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type I diabetes
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lack of insulin
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type II diabetes
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not autoimmune, eyelets cells are not damaged but insulin receptors are not responding properly
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diabetic neuropathy
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degenerative changes in kidneys can lead to failure, abnormal blood flow to neural tissue
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diabetic retinopathy
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proliferation of capillaries and hemorrhaging at retina
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endocrine kidneys
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produce calcitrol and erythropoietin, produce enzyme renin
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renin
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important enzyme in blood pressure control
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heart endocrine
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produces natiuretic peptides so when blood volume becomes too high angiotensin II is opposed to stop fluid retention
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thymus
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produces thymosins to maintain immune system
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leptin
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feedback control for appetite secreted by fat tissue
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permissive hormone interaction
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one i required for the other work
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integrative hormone interaction
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hormones produce different and complementary results
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hormones important to growth
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insulin, GH, thyroid, PTH and calcitrol, reproductive hormones
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diabetes insipidus
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lack of antidieurtetic hormone, excessive urine production
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addison's disease
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adrenal cortex is damaged so not enough glucocorticoids, lack ability to tolerate stress and can't maintain normal blood glucose
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cushings disease
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too much glucocorticoids, excessive breakdown of tissue proteins and lipid reserves
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GAS general adaptation syndrome
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stress response, alarm phase, resistance phase, exhaustion phase
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blood
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at leasat 50% fluid matrix
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functions of blood
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transports gases, nutrients and waste. regulate pH, restricts fluid at injurys, defense against toxins, stabilize body temp
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plasma
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92% water, 7% protein, 1% solute
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formed elements
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99.9% RBS, <1% WBC and platelets
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whole blood
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half plasma, half formed elements
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hemopoiesis
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process of producing formed elements by myeloid and lymphoid stem cells starting in bone marrow
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fractionation
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process of separating whole blood for clinical analysis
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characteristics of blood
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33 degrees celsius (above body temp), alightly alkaline (7.4 pH), 7% body weight, high viscosity
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plasma proteins
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60% albumins, 35% globulins, 4% fibrinogen
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albumin
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transports fatty acids, thyroid hormones and steroid hormones
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globulins in plasma
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antibodies
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serum
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liquid part of blood sample, in which dissolved fibrinogen has converted to solid fibrin. serum = plasma - clotting factors
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hemoglobin
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red pigments (iron), transports CO2 and O, no nucleus, complex quaternary structure
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abundance of RBC
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5-6 million in men, 4-5 million in women
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rouleaux
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stacks of RBC
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life span of RBC
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120 days
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abundance of hemoglobin
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14-18 g/dL men, 12-16 g/dL women
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sickle cell anemia
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one point mutation in one amino acid, causes change in RBC shape, genetic
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hemolyze
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macrophages in liver, spleen, kidney, and bone marrow monitor and engulf RBC before rupture
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hemoglobinuria
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hemoglobin breakdown products in urine due to excess hemolysis
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hematuria
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RBC in urine due to kidney or tissue damage
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biliverdin
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green pigment as a result of hemolysis
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bilirubin
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byproduct of biliverdin excreted by liver, converted by intestinal bacteria
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transferrin
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transports iron from blood
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ferritin
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stores iron from blood
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erythropoiesis
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occurs only in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow)
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hemocytoblasts
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stem cells in myeloid tissue that divide to produce myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells
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proerythroblast
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becomes an erythroblast
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erythroblast
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matures to normoblast
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normoblast
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ejects nucleus after four days and becomes reticulocyte
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reticulocyte
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becomes mature RBC one week after original proerythroblast
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regulation of erythropoiesis
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requires amino acids, iron, vitamin b12 and b16, and folic acid
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pernicious anemia
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low RBC production due to unavailability of vitamin b12, may be lacking intrinsic factor to absorb in digestion
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erythropoietin
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secreted by kidneys when oxygen in peripheral tissues is low or when at high altitude
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hypoxia
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oxygen in peripheral tissues is low
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surface antigens
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cell surface proteins that identify red blood cells to immune system, normal is ignored, foreign is attacked
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blood type
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determined by presence or absence of surface antigens, A, B, Rh
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antibodies
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opposite of antigens in blood, A antigen have B antibody
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universal recipient
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AB
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universal donor
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O-
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Rh factor
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D antigen, either positie or negative, only make antibodies when challenged (might occur in pregnancy)
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cross reactions in transfusions
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if plasma antibodies meet specific antigen will agglutinate and hemolyze, can cause liver and kidney failure
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white blood cells
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leukocytes, no hemoglobin, have nuclei and other organelles (longer life), defend against pathogens, remove toxins, attack abnormal cells, come from stem cells, mostly in connective tissue proper and lymphatic organs,
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number of WBC per microliter of blood
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5000-10000, small
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circulation of WBC
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move in and out of bloodsteam, have amoeboid movement, attracted to chemical stimuli when responding to injury, some are phagocytic
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neutrophils
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50-70% of circulating WBC, lysosomal enzymes and bactericides, first response to infection, phagocytic, forms pus, release prostaglandins and leukotreins
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defensins
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peptides from lysosomes in neutrophils which attack pathogen membranes
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eosinophils
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2-4% WBC, attack large parasites, excrete tonic compounds, sensitive to allergens, control inflammation with enzymes to counter act inflammation
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basophils
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<1% WBC, release histamine to dialate blood vessels, and heparin to prevent blood clotting
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monocytes
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2-8% WBC, large, spherical , enter peripheral tissue and become macrophage for large particles and pathogens
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lymphocytes
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20-30% WBC, larger than RBC but still small, migrate in/out of blood mostly in connective tissue and lymphoid organs 3 classes
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t cells
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lymphocytes for cell mediated immunity, directly attack foreign cells
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b cells
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lymphocyes for humoral immunity, differentiate into plama cells, synthesize antibodies
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natural killer (NK) cells
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lymphocytes that detect and destroy abnormal tissue cells (cancer)
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leukopenia
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abnormally low WBC count
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leukocytosis
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abnormally high WBC count
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leukemia
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extremely high WBC count but don't function
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myeloid
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all WBC and RBC not lymhocytes
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lymphoid stem cells
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produce lymphocytes through lymphopoiesis
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development of WBC
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all develop in bone marrow expect monocyte (develop in macrophages in peripheral tissue)
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platelets
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cell fragments involved in human clotting system, circulate 9-12 days, 2/3 reserved for emergencies, 150-500K/microliter
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thrombocytopenia
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low count of platelets, won't clot
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thrombocytosis
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high count of platlets, too much clotting
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function of platelet
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release clotting chemicals, temporarily patch vessel wall, reduce size of break in vessel wall
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thrombocytopoiesis
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production of platelets in bone marrow
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multi CSF
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stimulates production of platelets
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hemostasis
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stopping bleeding
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vascular phase
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first phase in hemostasis, endothelial cells contract and release factors to stimulate smooth muscle contraction an cell division, cells stick together
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platelet phase
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second phase of hemostasis, platelet adhesion to endothelial surfaces, aggregation, release clotting compounds
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prostacyclin
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relased by endothelial cells to inhibit platelet plug
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coagulation phase
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third phase in hemostasis, blood clotting, 3 pathways converge to turn fibrinogen to fibrin
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megakaryoctes
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giant cells in bone marrow manufacture platelets from cytoplasm
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thromboietin
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stimulates production of platelets
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interleukin- 6
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cytokine, stimulates for cell signaling
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multi CSF
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stimulates production of platelets
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vascular phase
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first phase in hemostasis, endothelial cells contract and release factors to stimulate smooth muscle contraction an cell division, cells stick together
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coagulation phase
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third phase in hemostasis, blood clotting, 3 pathways converge to turn fibrinogen to fibrin
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extrinsic coagulation pathway
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begin in vessel wall, outside of bloodstream, damage cells release tissue factor to stimulate factor X
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intrinsic coagulation pathway
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being w/in bloodstream, activation of enzymes by collagen, platelets release factors to stimulate factor X
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common pathway
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intrinsic and extrinsic converge, forms enzyme to convert fibrinogen to fibrin
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fibrinolysis
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slow process of dissolving clot, plasminogen produces plasin to digest fibrin stands
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pulmonary circuit
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carries blood to and from gas exchange surfaces of lungs (right side of heart to lungs)
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systemic circuit
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carries blood to/from body, left side of heart to body, blood alternates through both systems
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arteries
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blood away from heart
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vein
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blood to heart
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capillaries
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networks between arteries and veins, exchange gases and nutrients
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right atrium
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collects blood from systemic
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right ventricle
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pumps blood to pulmonary
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left atrium
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collects blood from pulmonary
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left ventricle
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pumps blood to systemic
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mediastinum
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cavity containing the heart
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mesothelium
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inside of parietal paricardium
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aerolar
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middle of parietal paricardium
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coronry sulcus
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divides atria and ventricles
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epicardium
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visceral pericardium
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mysocardium
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muscular call of concentric layers
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endocardium
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simple squamus epithelium against heart
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intercalated discs
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interconnected cardiac muscle cells, secreted by desmosomes, gap junctions, propagate action potential and convey force of contraction
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characteristics of cardiac cells
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small, central nucleus, intercalated discs, many mitochondria, rich blood supply, no resting metabolism, aerobic
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interatrial septum
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separates atria
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atrioventricular valves (AV)
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connect right atrium to right ventricle and left atrium to left ventricle, only one direction
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superior vena cava
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receives blood from head/neck and send to right atrium
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inferior vena cava
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receives blood from legs/trunk and sends to right atrium
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coronary sinus
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cardiac veins return blood to coronary sinus, opens into right atrium
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foramen ovale
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before birth, opening in interatrial septum
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pectinate muscles
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contain prominent muscluar ridges on anterior atrial wall and inner surfaces of right atrial
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trabeculae carneae
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muscular ridges in internal surface of left/right ventricle
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moderator band
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ridge containing part of conducting system in left/right ventricles, part of trabeculae carneae
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chordae tendineae
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small fibers attached to AV valve and papillary muscles to hold valve shut
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conus arteriosus
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leads to pulmonary trunk
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pulmonary trunk
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divides into left and right pulmonary arteries, blood enters from right ventricle
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systemic circulation
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blood leaves left ventricle through aortic semilunar valve into ascending aorta
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aortic sinus
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sacs at base of ascending aorta, prevent valve from sticking
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coronary artery disease
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partial or complete blockage of coronary circulation
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coronary ischemia
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reduced circulation supply resulting from partial or complete blockage
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angina pectoris
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chest pain when active, goes away, normal
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diastole
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at rest
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myocardinal infarction
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heart attack, 25% end in death after 2 hours
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treatments for MI
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beta blockers, nitroglycerin, block calcium movement, atherectomy (catheter), balloon angioplasty (stint)
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contractile cells
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produce contraction
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conducting system
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control and coordinate heart beat
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SA node
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begins cardiac cycle, pacemaker, intrinsic signal, sends to AV node, in atria
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AV node
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between atria and ventricle, causes slight delay, propagates to AV bundle than bundle branches then purkinje
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prepotential
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SA node gradually depolarizes on own
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bradycardia
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slow heart reate
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tachycardia
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fast heart rate
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ectopic pacemaker
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abnoramal cells generate high rate of action potentials, bypass conducting system
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P wave
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EKG wave where atria depolarize
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QRS wave
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EKG wave where ventricles depolarize
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T wave
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EKG wave where ventricles repolarize
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rapid depolarization
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causes Na+ entry ends with closing sodium channels
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plateau
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calcium enters, ends with closing calcium channels
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repolarization
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K loss, ends with closer of K channels
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end diastolic volume
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fullest volume of ventricles
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stroke volume
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amount of blood ejected in ventricular systole
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end systolic colume
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amount left after ventricular ejection
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angiotensin
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released from kidneys to lungs to control BP and blood volume
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natriuretic peptides
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released from heart to kidneys, hypothalamus, and adrenal gland to increase water and salt loss in kidneys
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CRH
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released from hypothalamus to pituitary to stimulate release of ACTH
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erythropoeitin
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released form kidneys to bone marrow to increase RBC production
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GHRH
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released from hypothalamus to pituitart to stimulate release of GH
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glucocorticoids
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released from zona fasciculata of adrenal cortex to hypothalamus and anterior lobe to inhibit production of CRH
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GnRH
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released from hypothalamus to pituitary to release FSH and LH
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leptin
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released from adipose tissue to hypothalamus to suppress appetite and allow GnRH
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aldosterone
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released from zona glomerulosa to kidneys to increase renal absorption of Na and water
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PIH
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released from hypothalamus to pituitary to inhibit prolactin
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somatostatin
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released from hypothalamus to pituitary to inhibit GH
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TRH
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released from hypothalamus to pituitary to release TSH
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S1
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"lubb" produced by AV valve closing
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S2
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"dubb" produced by semilunar valves closing
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S3 & S4
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soft sounds, blood flowing into ventricles and atrial contractions
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ejection fraction
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% of EDV represented by ESV
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cardiac output
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mL of blood pumped out of ventricle per minute - HR x SV
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cardioacceleratory center
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in medulla oblongata, carries sympathetic nurons
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cardioinhibitory center
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medulla oblongata, carried parasympathetic neurons
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vagus nerve
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carry parasympathetic preganglionic fibers to small ganglia in cardiac plexus
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cardiac plexus
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innervates heart
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preload
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degree of ventricular stretching during ventricular diastole
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afterload
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tension the ventricle produces to open the semilunar valve and eject blood
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frank-starling principle
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as EDV increases stroke volume increases until physical limits
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cardiac reserve
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difference between resting and maximal output
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