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250 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Afferent neuron
Efferent neuron interneuron |
A:Sensory input
E:motor output I:connects afferent neurons and efferent neurons in neural pathways. |
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Name two general types of ganglia?
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Dorsal root ganglia (aka spinal ganglia): contain cell bodies of sensory (afferent) nerves
-Autonomic ganglia: contain cell bodies of autonomic nerves |
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Name two nuclei of cranial nerve IV (the trigeminal nerve)?
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Mesencephalic Nucleus
Chief Sensory Nucleus Spinal Trigeminal Nucleus |
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Where are the soma of skeletal muscle motor neurons located?
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anterior horn of the spinal cord
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Where are the axons of skeletal muscle motor neurons located?
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outside the CNS
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What is axoplasmic transport
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durrr
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Why is ATP needed for neurotransmission?
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maintain ion concentration gradients
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What are dyneins and kinesins?
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the dynein runs away, -ve morale
kinesin runs to, +ve morale |
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functions of Astrocytes
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: transfer ions, nutrients, and waste between CSF, blood, and neurons. -regulate extracellular bran fluid composition
-release chemical which cause BBB |
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Oligodendrocytes vs Schwann cells
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CNS vs PNS
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Microglia does?
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phagocytic immune defense cells of CNS
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Ependymal cells do?
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: produce and move cerebrospinal fluid
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Local potential vs Action potential
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durrr
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EPSP vs IPSP and causes of both
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E: caused by Na+
I: by Cl or K |
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Threshold potential
Refractory period |
t:think the chart
refractory--> not likely another action yet |
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4 ion channels
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1) Voltage Gated Na+ Channels
2) Ligand Gated CA+ Channels 3) K+ Leak Channels (always open)/Voltage gated exist as well 4) CL- Leak Channels (always open) |
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ion channel is responsible for the resting potential?
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K+ channels
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ion channel is responsible for the depolarization phase of the action potentiial?
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NA+ gated ion channels
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ion channel is responsible for the repolarization phase of the action potentiial?
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Voltage gated K+ channels ??
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ion channel is responsible for the influx of Ca++ ions that stimulates the release of neurotransmitter at the presynaptic terminal?
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Voltage gated CA+ channels
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how local anesthetics work
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blocking Voltage gated NA+ channels
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Neuromodulator ?
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released from neurons that can pre-synaptically or post-synaptically influence the likeliehood that an action potential
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Electrical Synapse vs Chemical synapse
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E: gap junc. w/ ions
C:through neurotransmitters |
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Describe the physiological processes involved in chemical synaptic neurotransmission
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just promote it shitbag
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mechanisms terminate neurotransmitter action?
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RE-uptake ,
Enzyme degredation |
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Adenylate cyclase ?
phospholipase C? |
converts ATP to cAMP
P: cleaves the polar groups off phospholipids |
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3 ligand-gated ion channels/ neurotransmitter receptors?
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1) Glutamate Receptors/Channels
2) Glycine channels/Receptors 3) GABA |
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ion is responsible for the IPSP produced by GABA?
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. CL-
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ion is responsible for the EPSP produced by glutamate
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Na+
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6 excitatory and 9 inhibitory neurotransmitters?
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Excitatory –
1) ACH 2) Glutamate 3) Aspartate 4) Nitric Oxide Inhibitory – 1) GABA 2) Glycine 3) Serotinin 4) Histamine 5) Substance P 6) Endorphin 7) Enkephlin 8) Dopamine (Both) 9) Norepinephrine (both) |
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2 types of cholinergic receptors
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Nicotinic
o Muscarinic durrrrr |
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types of adrenergic receptors?
neurotransmitters activate these receptors? |
Alpha 1 Receptor and Alpha 2 Receptor
Beta 1 receptor and Beta 2 receptor ) Epinephrine Norepinephrine |
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5 levels of the spinal cord
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Cervical
Thoracic Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal |
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Conus medullaris
Cauda equina |
At terminal end of the spinal cord. It occurs near lumbar nerves 1 (L1) and 2 (L2).
CE:(horses tail) nerves that exit the vertebral column after the cord ends (~L2) |
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Where does the cord begin and end?
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medulla oblongata to L2
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Where do the sacral and coccygeal nerves exit the cord?
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cauda equina
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Where do the sacral and coccygeal nerves exit the vertebral column?
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exit through IVF and sacral hiatus respec
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Ipsilateral
Contralateral |
same side
opposite |
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Anterior horn
Posterior horn each carries what? |
A:Motor neurons
P:Sensory axons and interneurons |
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Dorsal root ganglion
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nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of neurons in afferent spinal nerves.
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Where are the upper motor neuron cell bodies located?
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in the brain or brain stem
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Where are the lower motor neuron cell bodies located?
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brainstem, spinal cord,
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Where are axons from cerebral upper motor neurons located?
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PMC primary motor cortex to spinal cord
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Where are axons from lower (spinal) motor neurons located?
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anterior horn of the spinal cord to the skeletal muscel of arms or legs
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What neurotransmitter is released by the presynaptic terminals of motor neurons?
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acetylcholine, or after symp. ganlgion noepinephrine
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Which cranial nerves move the eye?
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3, 4, and 6
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which 2 nerves do tongue and where on it?
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7 and 9,
7 is front |
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dermatome
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area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve.
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corpus callosum is?
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connects right and left hemispheres, lots of white matter
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what controls the night day cycle
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hypothalamus
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cerebellum incharge of? diseases that can happen?
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movement,
ataxia-->bad coordination |
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Wernicke’s area?
Broca’s area? |
W: Sensory interpretation and comprehension of speech
B: Motor speech |
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BBB?
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read it
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limbic system does?
memories are done by? |
emotional responses
M: done by hippocampus |
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Parkinsons
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substania nigra
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cerebral cortex?
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Sensory perception
Voluntary control of movement Speech & language Higher mental functions |
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where does most sensory shit come in? where relayed too?
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thalamus and then cerebral cortex
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Where are sympathetic preganglionic neuron cell bodies located?
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spinal cord
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Which layer touches the cord?
Which layer is farthest from the cord? |
Pia matter
Dura mater |
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Into which space is the anesthetic injected for spinal?
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epidural, tween dura and periosteum or subarachnoid btween Pia and Arachniod
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Into which space is an anesthetic injected for epidural anesthesia?
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epidural, tween dura and periosteum
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7. Name the nerve that innervates the diaphragm and the spinal nerves from which it arises.
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Phrenic nerve from C3-5
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8. Name the nerve that innervates the thumb and index finger.
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median
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9. Name the nerve that innervates the little (pinkie) finger.
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ulnar
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What is carpal tunnel syndrome?
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compressed median nerve
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10. List the 5 components of a reflex arc.
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recptor, sensory neuron, integrating center (interneuron), motor neuron, effector
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What is a nociceptor?
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reacts to potentially damaging stimuli
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Where are interneuron cell bodies located?
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spinal cord
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11. Describe the stretch reflex.
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muscle contracts in response to stretching
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What is a muscle spindle?
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non-contractile part of muscle that senses the stretch
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12. Describe the tendon reflex.
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causes relaxation to prevent muscle damage
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What is a Golgi tendon organ?
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this is thing that senses the tendon stretching and activates IPSP
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What types of information are carried by the spinothalamic tracts?
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sensory to brain, pain/ temp on lateral, touch/pressure on anterior
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At what level do spinothalamic axons decussate (cross)?
dorsal column axons? |
level of spinal nerve
medulla |
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What types of information are carried by the dorsal columns?
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2 point discrimination, pressure, vibration
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What type of information is carried by the Corticospinal tracts?
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motor axons
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What type of receptor senses pain?
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nociceptor
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What type of receptor senses vibration?
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paccian corpuscles
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What type of receptor senses two-point discrimination?
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meissners corpuscles
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What type of receptor senses muscle tone?
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proprioceptor
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lateral horn-->
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preganglionic cell bodies are located here in the gray matter.
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Is there a lateral horn in the cervical cord?
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no only T and L
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What kind of axons are in the white ramus communicans?
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mylenated pregang
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What kind of axons are in the gray ramus communicans?
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unmylenated post
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2. Name the type of cholinergic receptor on the postsynaptic membrane of postganglionic neurons.
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the postgang. has nicotinic and effects muscarinic
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What is a ganglionic blocking drug?
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mecamylamine (Inversine®)
trimethaphan (Arfonad®) hexamethonium |
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3. Describe the basic anatomy and function of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
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decreases nonessential organs and shunts blood to active structures
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What is the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the pupil of the eye?
ciliary muscle of the eye? lung? heart? intestine? |
eyes dilate
relaxes so see farther bronchi dilation increase force and rate of contraction shutdown |
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Where are sympathetic preganglionic neuron cell bodies located?
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in thoracic or lumbar of spinal cord
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Where are sympathetic postganglionic neuron cell bodies located?
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gray ramus communicans
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Where are parasympathetic preganglionic neuron cell bodies located?
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Brainstem or lateral horn of the sacral portion of the spinal cord
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Why is the parasympathetic division also called the craniosacral division?
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it involves cranial nerves in the brain and the sacral nerves of the spine
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Where are parasympathetic postganglionic neuron cell bodies located?
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Within or near the target organs
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Which receptor subtypes are ligand gated ion channels?
G-proteins that activate phospholipase C? activate adenylate cyclase? that inhibit adenylate cyclase? |
cholenergic
Muscarinic, alpha beta adrenergic alpha ,muscarinic |
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Which receptor subtypes produce EPSPs?
stimulate smooth muscle contraction? stimulate smooth muscle relaxation? |
cholenergic
muscarinic beta adrenergic |
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1. List the 3 layers of the meninges.
Which layer touches the CNS? Which layer touches the periostium of the skull? What space contains CSF? |
P.A.D.
Pia Dura Sub-arachnoid space tween P and A |
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2. Describe the falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, and falx cerebelli
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F's are between themselves, T is tween each other
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3. Describe the location of the 4 ventricles.
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2 lateral, 3rd, 4th
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Where are the lateral ventricles?
Where is the 3rd ventricle? Where is the 4th ventricle? |
diencephalon
center diencephalon tween thalamus halfs inferior of pontine region and superior region of medulla O. (hindbrain) |
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What is the function of the choroid plexus and where are they located?
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produce CSF in each ventricle
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What type of cells help produce and move the CSF?
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ependymal cells
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Where and what are the arachnoid villi?
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in subarachniod space, reabsorb
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What is the sagittal sinus?
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top of head from to back then splits and goes to heart
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What is the central canal?
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vertebral column
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1. List the 4 general regions of the brain.
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cerebellum, cerebrum, diencephalon, Brainstem
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What part comes from the telencephalon?
What parts form the diencephalon? What parts form the brainstem? What sits on top of the brain stem and which ventricle is located between them? |
T:cerebrum
D: thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus, epithalamus B:pons, midbrain, medulla, reticular formation T: pons, 4th ventricle tween |
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2. Describe the anatomical position, structures and principal functions of the brainstem and reticular formation.
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midbrain, pons, medulla (top down), reticulalr formation central core, has to do with sleep and other critical body func.
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3. Describe mechanisms by which brainstem function contributes to physiological homeostasis.
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in charge of many autonomic regulations in response to stimuli
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4. Define decussation.
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Latral coritcospinal tract(motor) axons cross the midline in the medulla.
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5. Describe the anatomy and function of the medulla.
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regulate all the necessary life operations needed for survival. Breathing, heart beat
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What type of fibers make up the pyramids?
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Motor fibers
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What information is processed through nuclei cuneatus & gracillis?
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sensory
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Where are important centers for regulating heart rate and blood pressure?
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Medulla oblongata
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Do all nerve tracts decussate in the medulla?
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No, just most
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6. Describe the anatomy and function of the pons.
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Contains ascending and descending tracts and pontine nuclei that process information being sent to the cerebellum. Involved in regulation of breathing
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What type of fibers make up the middle cerebellar peduncle?
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motor
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What type of information is processed through pontine nuclei?
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info to cerebellum
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Where are important centers for regulating breathing?
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pneumotaxic and apneustic areas
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7. Describe the anatomy and function of the midbrain.
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center of sensory processing, uppermost of brainstem
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What type of information is processed in the superior colliculi?
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visual reflex
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What type of information is processed in the inferior colliculi?
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auditory reflex
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What type of information is processed in the red nuclei and substantia nigra?
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coordinate movement, red-->muscles of shoulder,
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What is the cerebral aquaduct?
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CSF goes through
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8. List the structures of the diencephalon.
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Thalamus, Subthalamus, Epithalamus, Hypothalamus
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9. Describe the function of the cerebellum.
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control of balance, posture, locomotion, and fine motor coordination producing smooth flowing movements. Involved in many diverse cognitive functions, including attention and the processing of language, music, and other sensory stimuli
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What type of information is transmitted by the cerebellar peduncles?
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motor
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What type of neuron in the cerebellar cortex conveys signals to cerebellar deep nuclei?
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purkinje neurons
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10. Define ataxia.
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'lack of order', movements are fucked, gross incoordination of muscle movements. It’s a side effect of antiepileptic drugs and B12 deficiency
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11. Name 2 structures of the epithalamus.
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pineal gland, habenular nuclei
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Where is the SCN?
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hypothalamus
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Where is the pineal gland?
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in epithalimus
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How is information transmitted from the SCN to the pineal gland?
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sympathetic nerves--> superior cervical ganglion-->other sym nerves
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What type of information is processed in the habenular nuclei?
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olfactory, and emotion
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12. Describe the function of the thalamus.
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mood, actions, strong emotions (fear rage)
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Where is the main relay for sensory information transmitted to the cerebum?
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thalamus
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What type of protein is BMAL?
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It is a brain and muscle aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator
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What protein forms a heterodimer with BMAL?
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CLOCK
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What stimulates period mRNA production?
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BMAL dimerize CLOCK form transcription factor activates gene expression of Period
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What effect does CRY-PER have on CLOCK-BMAL?
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It inhibits it
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14. Describe the functions of the hypothalamus.
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ANS control(blood pressure), endocrine control, muscle control, Temp regulation, regulation of food and water intake, emotions, reproduction, regulation of sleep-wake cycle.
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What nucleus regulates sleep wake cycles? Thirst? Hunger?
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
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15. Describe the anatomy and functions of the Cerebrum
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Largest portion of brain, right and left hemispheres, 4 lobes-frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal. And there’s insula. Cortex: outer layers(grey matter). Medulla: center region(white matter)
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What region processes somatic sensory information?
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cerebral cortex
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What region processes somatic motor information?
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medulla
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What region processes visual information?
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Visual cortex
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What region processes speech comprehension?
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Wernicke
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What region processes motor speech?
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Broca
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16. Describe the anatomy and functions of the basal ganglia (basal nuclei)
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regulation of movement, refinement
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What structures are involved in development of Parkinson’s disease?
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Substania Nigra
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How do the basal ganglia act in concert with the cerebellum?
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relay info
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17. Describe the role of the motor cortex, basic motor pathways and the regulation of movement.
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dopaminergic paths that reg movement
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Sulci
Gyri |
fissures in the brain(btw the gyri
ridge of the cerebral cortex |
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19. Contrast an association pathway differ from a commissural pathway.
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Association is same hemishpere
commissural is opposite hemisphere |
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What is the role of the basal nuclei and cerebellum?
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control movement, fine movement (opp)
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20. Define aphasia.
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absent or defective speech or language comprehension
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21. Describe the general structure and function of the ‘limbic system’.
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emotional, Includes the amygdale, hippocampus, septal nuclei and cortical tissue surrounding these structures. A functional entity not a neuroanatomical unit extensively interconnected with the thalamus and hippocampus
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Where is explicit/declarative memory processed?
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hippocampus, and amygdale is emotional response
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22. Describe the location and function of the hippocampus.
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lower portion cerebrum, memory
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23. Contrast anterograde amnesia from retrograde amnesia.
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anterograde--> new events forgot
retrograde--> old events forgot |
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Which is temporarily produced by benzodizapine drugs?
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anterograde
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24. Describe the types of changes that occur during the formation of long-term memories.
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dependent on changes in structure of neuron
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What is long-term potentiation?
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neurons can now comm easier
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25. Briefly describe Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and epilepsy.
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Alzheimer’s=. Loss of neurons that release acetylcholine. Parkinson’s=dysfunction of the substantia nigra, degeneration of dopamine neurons. Epilepsy-electrical discharges in the brain.
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What are the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease and what type of drugs are used to reduce the symptoms?
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dementia
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What are the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease and what type of drugs are used to reduce the symptoms?
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involuntray movement, treat L-DOPA
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What are the symptoms of epilepsy and what type of drugs are used to reduce the symptoms?
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seizures, treat with antieptileptic drugs, gabapentin
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26. Define Tardive dyskinesia.
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involuntary purposeless movements that are repeditive,
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What class of drugs cause Tardive dyskinesia?
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anti phycotics
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1. List 5 categories of sensory receptors (based on type of stimuli sensed).
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Chemoreceptors: sense gustation (taste) and olfaction (smell)
Mechanoreceptors: sense stretch, tissue displacement, and vibration Nociceptors: sense pain Thermoreceptors: sense temperature Photoreceptors: sense light |
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Where will you find mechanoreceptors?
Where will you find thermo? |
skin , ear
skin, cornea, bladder |
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2. List the 6 types of sensory receptors found in the skin.
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Free Nerve endings, Merkel’s disks, meissner’s corpuscles, Ruffini’s end organs, Pacinian corpuscles, Hair follicle receptor.
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What types of sensation are transmitted by free nerve endings?
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pain, itch, temp, pressure
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Which are nociceptors?
What types of sensation are transmitted by Merkel’s disks? What types of sensation are transmitted by Meissner’s corpuscles? Ruffini’s end organs? Pacinian corpuscles Hair follicle receptors |
pain
light touch 2 point continous touch, pressure deep pressure, vibration light touch |
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3. List the 2 types of mechanoreceptors (proprioception) receptors found in muscle.
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muscle spindle, golgi tendon organ
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4. Contrast tonic and phasic receptors.
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tonic-->continue
phasic--> stop if strength not change |
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5. Describe the three principal sensory pathways of the spinal cord.
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-Spinothalmic System--> Later division: senses pain and temperature
-Anterior division: for light touch, pressure, tickle, and itche (cross spinal nerve) -Spinocerebellar System--> proprioceptive information to the cerebellum (no cross) |
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6. Define analgesia and hyperalgesia.
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Analgesia is defined as an insensitivity to pain without loss of consciousness;. A drug usually induces this state. ( Opiates, or blockers of postaglandins, antihistamines)
Hyperalgesia is an increased sensitivity to pain |
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7. Describe the gate-control theory of pain.
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The gate-control theory of pain is the idea that the perception of physical pain is modulated by interaction between, both pain-transmitting neurons and non-pain-transmitting neurons. The activation of nerves that do not transmit pain signals can interfere with signals from pain fibers and inhibit an individual’s perception of pain.
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8. Discuss the role of the pharmacist in managing referred pain, phantom pain, and chronic pain.
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- Referred pain is the pain perceived at a site other than the actual site of tissue injury.
o Ex. – Ischemic damage to heart muscle during a heart attack felt in the neck, shoulders and back rather than the chest - Phantom pain sensations are perception relating to a limp or an organ that is not physically part of the body. o Ex. – Amputation or congenital limp deficiency - Chronic Pain is defined as pain that persists longer than the natural course of healing associated with a particular type of injury or disease. o Perioperative analgesia can be use to prevent central sensitization |
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1. Describe the location of the olfactory mucosa, cribriform plate, ethmoid bone, olfactory bulb, and olfactory tract.
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olfactory mucosa --> Nose
cribiform plate--> Part of Ethmoid Bone that has holes where nerves pass through to Olfactory bulb Olfactory Bulb--> Frontal Lobe Olfactory Tract--> Path for info from Bulb to Olfactory Cortex |
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2. Describe the structure and function of olfactory neurons.
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nerve that converts chemical stim. to electrical stim.
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What is an olfactory receptor?
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alpha S G protein that bind odorant
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3. Name the brain regions that process olfactory information.
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olfactory cerebral cortex
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1. Describe the location of the taste buds and the lingual papillae
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taste buds on tongue, cheeks, palate, lips, most on the papillae aka the tongue epithelium
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2. Name the 4 types of papillae.
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- fungiform- mushroom shaped
- vallate- surrounded by a wall - foliate- leaf shaped - filiform- filament shaped |
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3. Describe the structure and function of taste buds and chemoreceptor cells.
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4. Taste buds- are sensory structures that detect gustatory, or taste, stimuli.
Chemoreceptors-, specialized cells in the body that convert (transduce) the immediate effects of such substances directly or indirectly into nerve impulses |
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5. List the 5 classes of taste.
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sweet, sour, bitter, salt, umani
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Where are the sensory neuron cell bodies carrying taste information for the anterior 2/3 of the tongue?
carrying taste information for the posterior 1/3 of the tongue? |
facial nerve 7
glossopharygeal, 9 |
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7. Name the brain regions that process taste information
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PONS?. medulla, maybe occipital area
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Why is it necessary to keep the cornea surface moist?
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wetting the corneal epithelium, thereby preventing it from being damaged due to dryness,
creating a smooth optical surface on the front of the microscopically irregular corneal surface, acting as the main supplier of oxygen and other nutrients to the cornea, and containing an enzyme called “lysozyme” which destroys bacteria and prevents the growth of microcysts on the cornea. |
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What is the role of the Tasal (meibomian) glands, lacrimal glands, lacrimal canaliculi & sac.
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Tasal (meibomian) glands -supply of sebum, an oily substance that prevents evaporation
lacrimal glands- secrete aq layer lacrimal canaliculi and sac- drain tears from the eye's surface and into nose |
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What is the role of the ciliary body and canals of Schlemm?
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Ciliary bodies control the production of aqueous humor
Canals of Schlemm-where aqueous humor is reabsorbed |
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4. Define glaucoma.
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Abnormal increase in the pressure of the aqueous humor
• Canals become clogged/blocked |
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How do drugs used to treat glaucoma affect the production and reabsorption of the aqueous humor?
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increase outflow, or lower secretion
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How does a concave lens refract light?
Is the lens of your eye concave or convex? |
outwards
convex |
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What is visual accommodation?
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is the process by which the eye increases optical power to maintain a clear image
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Is the lens of the eye flattened or compressed in order to focus on near objects?
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compressed
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What is the effect of ciliary muscle contraction?
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rounds the lens (aka good for close)
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6. Describe the function of the pupil, fovea, and optic disk.
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pupil-->light entering eye
fovea-->sharp central vision optic disk--> optic nerve comes in and blind spot |
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7. Define hyperopia, myopia, presbyopia
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Hyperopria-farsighted
• Eye focuses beyond plane (due to cornea/shape of eye Myopia-nearsightedness • Eye focus short of retina (due to cornea/lens/eye shape) Presbyopia-->loss of accommodation with aging |
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How does astigmatism differ from nearsightedness or farsightedness?
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cornea is irrecular, blur all distance
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What is its cause the cause of presbyopia?
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age
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What is rodopsin?
What is the role of G-protein? |
-in rods, visual purple, first events perception of light
-activates cGMP phosphodiseterase |
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Does exposure to light induce depolarization or hyperpolarization in receptor cells?
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hyperpolarization
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What is unique about the role of glutamate in photoreception?
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inhibitory instead of excite
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9. Describe the 3 types of cones.
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Blue-->short
Green-->mid red-->high |
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How do cone pigments differ from the rod pigment?
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rods can work in less intense light
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How does the laminar structure of the retina change in the region of the fovea?
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more sharp vision
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What is the relationship between color, frequency and wavelength?
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percieved color range 380-740
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Why are males more likely to be color blind?
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X linked genetic
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Where are the ganglion cells located?
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closest to light in retina
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Which cells form the optic nerve?
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cranial nerve 2, retinal gang cells, portort cells
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To which side of the brain is information from the left visual field directed?
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right
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Is there a sensory benefit to this arrangment?
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yes, unify the picture
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What is the role of the thalamus and midbrain in visual processing?
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midbrain-->integrate motor processes
thalamus--> visual cortex |
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What regions of the brain responsible for receiving and processing visual information?
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thalamus, hypothalamus, and mesencephalon, and midbrain
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What is the relationship between pupil size and ‘depth of focus’?
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Contracted pupil-up close, reading (parasympathetic)
Dilated pupil-far away (sympathetic) |
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What is the function of the middle ear ossicles?
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bang on oval window
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Where does the Eustachian tube open into the auditory passageway?
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into middle ear and into nasal
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Is it likely that the king in Shakespeare’s Hamlet would have suffered lethal injury by introduction of poison into the outer ear?
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doubtable
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3. Name the 4 properties of sound.
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amplitude, intensity, duration and waveform(timbre)
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What is the frequency range of human hearing?
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20-20000Hz
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4. Describe the structure and function of the cochlea and the spiral organ of corti.
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snail, organ of corti is the hairs
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Which part of the cochlea is most sensitive to low frequencies?
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apex
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Are outer hair cells or inner hair cells more important for generation of sensory potentials?
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inner hair cells
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How does the ear discriminate differences in stimulus intensity?
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frequency of stim of hair cells
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Where are the neurons that synapse with the hair cells?
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synape directly w/ vestibularcholear (aka auditory )nerve
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Where does sound perception occur?
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cochelar
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here is the primary auditory cortex?
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temporal lobe near lateral fissure
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7. Define tinnitus and presbyacusis.
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perception of sound w/ no external sound
P:age related hearing loss |
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8. Discuss the role of the pharmacist in preventing hearing damage caused by prescribed and over the counted medications.
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aspirin--> tinitis
quininies-->tinitis loop directics, aminoglycoside antibiotics anticancer drugs environmental pollutants |
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What is the utricle?
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It contains hair cells distinguish tilting head. It is sensitive horizontal movement.
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What is the saccule?
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sensitive to linear translations, specifically movements up and down (ex. Movement in an elevator).
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What is a hair cell?
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transduce movements of otoliths into chem signals
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What is kinocilium?
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special structure on apex of hair cells
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What are otoliths?
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small particles that flow by the hair cells
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3. Describe the structure and function of the kinetic labyrinth.
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3 semicircular canals
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How many canals?
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3
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What is the ampulla?
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large region contains sensory structure, cristal ampularis
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What is the cupula?
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senses 'proprioception' rotational acceleration and sends signal via auditory nerve
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What is moving to stimulate the hair cells, perilymph or endolymph?
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endolymph which has high ++ charge
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5. Describe the pathways of vestibular perception.
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vestibular gang.-->auditory nerve-->medula oblong.
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Where does movement perception occur?
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crista apullaris
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How do we localize our position?
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macula detects position relative to gravity
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7. Define Motion sickness, Nystagmus, Meniere disease & Vertigo.
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MS: disagreement between seeing and percieving motion
Nystagmus: involuntray eye movement Meniere: inner ear disease affect hearing and balance vertigo: balance disorder, nasea and vomit |
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8. Discuss the role of the pharmacist in preventing motion sickness and other equilibrium problems.
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antihistamines
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How do large molecules like insulin and transferrin enter the brain?
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teceptor mediated transporters
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How do small molecules like glucose and amino acids enter the brain?
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carrier mediated, active efflux transporters
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How does L-DOPA enter the brain?
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What is LAT-1?
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What role do astrocytes have in the formation of the BBB?
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release chemical to form
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