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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Local Knowledge
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aka: folk science
the ideas, skills shared by a local group ex: know where best produce is or where to park at rush hour, etc |
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Cultural Adaptation
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culture adapts to new processes, ideas, and technologies
it occurs as both a process and as the resulting cultural changes |
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Cultural Materialism
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relationship between belief system and pragmatic needs.
ex: religious beliefs support our pragmatic needs and were set up that way |
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Marvin Harris
"India's Sacred Cow" |
British Anthropologist
coined: cultural materialism |
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Technology
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both the artifact (tools/material goods) and the knowledge (cultural ideas/schemas) needed to use it.
All cultures have technology. |
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Polynesian Voyaging
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Polynesians had navigated the entire south pacific before any contact with westerners.
Simple materials not simple cultures. |
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Cultural Ecology
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culture, environment, & technology are interelated
environment may limit culture but does not determine it. |
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Julian Steward
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founder of cultural ecology
"levels of cultural integration" - connections between technology, environment, and the size,complexity of group |
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Levels of Cultural Integration
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the connections between technology, environment, and the size and complexity of the social group
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Egalitarian System
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everyone treated equal
(except age & gender) |
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Ranked Society System
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heirarchical society based on families
unequal distribution of resources and wealth |
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Emile Durkheim
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french sociologist
looked a societies after industrial revolution how labor is assigned cross-culturally |
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Durkheim Findings
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societies both recognize the advancements and confusion caused by them but wish for the simple (prior) times.
2 mechinism: mechanical solidarity organic solidarity |
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Mechanical Solidarity
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lower end
specialization according to gender and age having the same basic world view little specialization |
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Organic Solidarity
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high end
extremely dependent on others for goods, services, survival as division of labor increases interdependence more important society still cohesive |
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3 main food production stratagies?
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Foraging (hunting-gathering)
Farming (horticulture-industrial) Animal Husbandry (pastorialism) |
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Foraging Societies
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band organization
typically socially mobile gender-based division of labor relatively egalitarian |
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Key Informant
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person with the most knowledge of environment, society, and cultural ideas - usually elderly
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Pastorialistic Societies
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raising of animals for food and other products
2 movement types: pastoral nomadism & agro-pastoralism |
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Pastoral Nomadism
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all members of the pastoral society follow the herd throughout the year
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Transhumance or Agro-Pastoralism
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part of the society follows the herd while the other part maintains a home village (some cultivation involved)
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Farming can be evaluated using what variables?
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tools
land tenure alteration of the land soil enrichment crops purpose |
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Horticulture
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non-intensive plant cultivation based on the use of simple tools and cyclical, non-continuous use of crop lands
aka: slash&burn, shifting cultivation, swidden |
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Extensive Agriculture
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non-mechanized system of food production that relies on human labor and small plots.
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Agriculture
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farming using plows and tractors, permanent occupation of the land, irrigation, fertilizers, and insecticides, and often the growing of single crops
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Intensive Agriculture
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the crops feed a large number of people
associated with cash cropping as opposed to subsistence |
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Industrialized Agriculture
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food now globally traded
is a response to colonization |
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Jarod Diamond
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determined a set of criteria needed to be met before an animal could be domesticated
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Requirements for Domesticated Animals
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eat many foods and low on chain
reach sexual maturity quickly able to breed in captivity less agressive/no danger not to skittish or hard to control part of social heirarchy humans at top |
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Mechanisms of Exchange
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People devote time, resources, and energy to five broad categories of ends: subsistence, replacement, social, ceremonial, and rent
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Subsistence Fund
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work is done to replace calories lost through life activities
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Replacement Fund
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work is expended maintaining the technology necessary for life - replacing items broken or lost
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Social Fund
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work is expended to establish and maintain social ties
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Cermonial Fund
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work is expended to fulfill ritual obligations
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Rent Fund
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work is expended to satisfy the obligations owed (or inflicted by) political or economic superiors
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Exchange
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distribution of goods and services
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Consumption
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use of goods and services
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Distribution
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movement of goods and services through some form of exchange system
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Forms of Integration
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ways societies manage distribution:
reciprocity redistribution market exchange w/in a culture |
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Reciprocity
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the exchange between social equals and occurs in three degrees: generalized, balanced, and negative
ie: i do for you you do for me |
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Generalized Reciprocity
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-closely related parties
-giving with no expectation of exchange but a reliance upon similar opportunites being available to the giver -delayed exchange |
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Marcel Mauss
"The Gift: forms and Functions of Exhange in Archaic Societies" |
gift deeply embedded in societies
many functions of gift: strengthens social network keeps cycle of indebtedness in place maintain complex relationships between people |
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Kula Exchange
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most famous "gifts"
Bronislaw Malinowski 1922 found bracelets and necklaces exchanged in long boat voyages |
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Bronislaw Malinowski
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european Boas
found Kula Exchange in 1922 |
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Marriage as Exchange
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the most common form of generalized reciprocity
marriage is between groups not people |
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Balanced Reciprocity
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distantly related parties
giving with expectation of equivalent if not immediately barter is the common form |
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Negative Reciprocity
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very distant trading partners
attempt max profit by each often between enemies can involve theft, plunder, trickery |
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Redistribution
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is the typical mode of exchange in cheifdoms and some non-industrialized states
product from local to state center product reorganized some sent back no expectation of reciprocity exists |
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Leveling Effect
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when rich contribute more than the poor
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Leveling Mechanisms
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constraints in the form of societal obligations that compel the distribution of goods so no one accumulates more wealth than anyone else
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Cargo System
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example leveling mechanism
Zinacantan Mayans civil religious hierarchy 4 hierarchal levels higher the level more demands on level holder as holder loses economically he gains in prestige |
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Market Exchange
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-exchange rates and organization are governed by an arbitrary money standard.
-price is set by law of supply and demand -impersonal -common to industrial societies -money is used |
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Potlatch System
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ritual in which sponsors gave away resources and manufactured wealth while generating prestige for themselves
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Consumption
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3 approaches:
-as a consumer demand that drives production -as the end result of economic chain of prod-dist-cons -as a process embedded in social relations and cultural meanings |
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What is defined as Food?
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personal, idiosyncratic preference
health reasons moral reasons religious reasons |
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Marriage
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all cultures have
requires: socially recognized union public ceremony establishes a family |
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Functions of Marriage
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sexual regulation
economic cooperation education of children |
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Monogamy
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one has only one spouse at a time
majority of the worlds marriages |
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Polygamy
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more than one spouse at a time includes:
group marriage polygyny polyandry |
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polygyny
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more than one wife
75% cultures allow |
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polyandry
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more than one husband
very rare fraternal polyandry (woman marries all brothers in the family - himalayas) |
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marriage as exchange
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goods and services exchanged
ties two groups together inc. bride wealth, dowry, & bride service |
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bride wealth
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husbands group pays wifes group
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dowry
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woman brings wealth to new family and keeps for her new family
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bride service
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work performed by groom
for cultures that move around work instead of payments |
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exogamy
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marrying out
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endogamy
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marrying in
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homogamy
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marrying same
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hypergamy/hypogamy
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marrying up or marrying down
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incest prohibitions
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biological problems
instinctive horror social alliances woody allen - social role conflict |
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parrallel cousin marriage
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between children of same gender siblings
mother sister/ fathers brother sibling of parent is same gender |
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cross cousins
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between children of brother and sister
mothers brother / fathers sister sibling of parent is opposite gender |
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levirate
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widow marriage a brother of her dead husband
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female husband
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if husband family only sisters one takes on the social role of father to children
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ghost marriage
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man dies w/out sons a male member of lineage marries the widow and their children become dead man's. line is preserved
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sororate
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custom of a widower marrying his dead wife's sister
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sororal polygyny
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marrying sister
avoids wife conflict |
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nuclear family
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biologically the basis of social organization (mother, father, children)
not most common family type globally |
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extended family
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more than two generations
may include siblings and spouses |
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family of orientation
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the family one is born in and grows up in
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family of procretion
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is formed when one marries and has own children
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patrilocal
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living with husbands kin group
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matrilocal
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living with wifes kin group
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neolocal
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establish independent residence
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avunculocal
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living with uncle
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divorce
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ending marriage
most societies have a way old family ties may be maintained or severed |
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boston marriages
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two women
19th century america long term living arrangement not related |
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genitor
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biological father
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pater
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social father
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serial monogamy
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marriage form in which a man or woman lives with a series of partners in succession
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political life
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a story of power
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political organization
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the allocation of power
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actual power
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implies physical force or threat of force
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influence
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implies the ability to talk people into things
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Big Man
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uses influence
achieved position from people temporarily held always fall strings attached |
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Chief
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wields power
inherited position lifetime tenure |
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Band
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a small group of related households occupying a particular region that gather periodically on an ad hoc basis but which don't yield their sovereignty to the larger collective
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Tribe
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a group of nominally independent communities occupying a specific region and sharing a common language and culture integrated by some unifying factor
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Chiefdom
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a regional polity in which two or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people
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nation-state
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a centralized political system that may legitimately use force to maintain social order
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nation
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communities of people who see themselves as "one people" on the basis of common ancestry, history, society, institutions, ideology, territory, language, and religion
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power differentials
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the unequal allocation of power
inc: slavery, colonialism, resistance |
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egalitarian
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all equal except by age and gender
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legal pluralism
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rules made up of locall customary law and formal european law
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prescriptions
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obliging some behavior
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proscriptions
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forbidding some behavior
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transgressions
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unacceptable deviations from cultural norms
acts of deviance |
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resolutions
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includes courts and punishments
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mediation
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third party relies on personal power to enforce judgments and resolve disputes
influence but not true power |
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adjudication
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third party had power to impose a judgment
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James Frazer
The Golden Bough |
the sacred grove of nemi
origins of religion |
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emile durkheim
the elementary forms of religious life |
investigated collective representations that people hold about religion
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science
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instrumental (does things) based on rational understanding and empirical knowledge
all cultures practice |
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magic
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instrumental but invokes the supernatural power through words or acts (spells)
based on faith/belief |
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religion
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based on belief/faith, works through the beseeching of the supernatural (prayer)
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Anxiety Theory of religion
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all cultures rely on science as far as it will extend and then will resort to magic and/or religion to reduce anxiety
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sympathectic magic
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unlike casting a spell these work due to an affinity between two things.
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law (principal) of contagion
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objects in contact with magic continue to retain that essence
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law (principal) of similarity
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similar acts/things have similar effects
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law (principal) of opposites
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one object has the opposite effect on another
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sacred power
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many forms
peronal spiritual forces, supernatural beings w/ special abilities and characteristics not visible to humans western terms: god, gods, spirits |
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animism
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the beief that all of natue is imbued with vital spiritual powers
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animatism
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an impersonal force (non-vital) or object
mana |
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polytheism
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belief in many gods human or animal like - strong personalities
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monotheism
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belief in one god
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soul matter
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vital essance or spiritual power
all cultures have this idea soul seen as living entity at one stage of existence |
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mana
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an impersonal supernatural force (animatism) exists in universe resides in people, animals, plants, objects
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taboo
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word used to express the dangerousness of mana
something is forbidden as it had so much mana or other supernatural power |
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totems / totemism
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mystical relationships between humans and nature
most widespread religious belief totems can be animals, plants, gender, or other natural phenomena |
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shamans
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human mediators of sacred power
using power for good |
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witchcraft
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human mediators of sacred power
using power for evil |
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sorcerer
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a person who learns magic rituals and uses them to inflict harm
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witch
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a person who has psychic powers and uses them to harm others
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new age witches
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practice wiccan religion
not satanic do not inflict harm |
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augury
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examination of common objects to find answers
tea leafs, quija board |
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scapulamancy
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reading of cracked bones
used for hunting |
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rites of passage
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formal similarities in those rituals which move a person from one status to another
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rite of separation
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stage of rite of passage that results in one's removal from the group
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period of transition or "liminal period"
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stage of rite of passage
ritual reversals of ordinary life take place |
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ritual of reincorporation
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stage of rite of passage when one is welcomed back in the community in a new role
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rites of intensification
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ceremonies dramatize and reaffirm the social network
ex: funeral is prototypical ceremony |
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syncretism
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incorporation of borrowed elements
absorbed local features cultures tend to absorb from other cultures |
