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412 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Define Nutrition |
A process that a living organism consumes food and uses it for growth, tissue repair, tissue replacement, and elaboration of products |
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The "___________" is an integration of chemistry, physics, mathematics, genetics, soil science, plant science, animal science and biochemistry. |
nutrition |
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Define nutrient |
Any component of the diet that supports normal growth, reproduction, lactation or maintenance of life |
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What are the six classes of nutrients? |
Water Proteins and amino acids Carbohydrates Lipids Vitamins Inorganic compounds |
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What are the three energy producing nutrients? |
Proteins and amino acids Carbohydrates Lipids |
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Nutrients that cannot be synthesized by the body are termed "_____________" or "________________." |
essential or indispensable |
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Nonessential nutrients are required in the diet. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; essential nutrients are required in the diet |
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Any edible material that provides nutrients for humans, what is this defining? |
Food |
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Define feed |
Any edible material that provides nutrients for animals |
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Difference between food and feed |
edible material for humans v animals
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The three energy producing nutrients give 4 ______/gram of energy. |
kilocalorie |
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Define feedstuff (foodstuff) |
Any substance made into or used as feed or food, respectively |
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A mixture of feedstuffs used to provide nutrients to animals. What is this defining? |
Diet |
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Define ration |
A daily allocation of feed or food |
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Animal's nutrients requirementss are also influenced by the: |
age of the animal productivity (ie maintenance of body issues, work, growth, milk, eggs, pregnancy) the dietary constituents available other factors |
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Give examples of life instances where more nutrients are required |
Young animals need more nutrients for development Lactation |
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What does animal feed contain? |
Simple compounds (eg salt or glucose) Complex mixtures supplied by some plant and most animal products Organic compounds Inorganic compounds |
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Name organic compounds in animal feed: |
Proteins containing amino acids Non-protein nitrogen- containing compounds Lipids (generally fat-soluble) Carbohydrates (generally water-soluble) Vitamins |
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Macroelements and micro (trace) elements are organic compounds. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; inorganic compounds |
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Both macro and microelements may be present at __________ concentrations in some plant tissues. |
toxic |
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If you ingest an excessive amount of macro and microelements, you'll be fine. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; toxic in excessive amounts |
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Animals contain higher concentrations of _____ and very low concentrations of _____________ (less than 1%). |
fat; carbohydrate |
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Generally, body composition of an adult mammal is about 60% water, 16% _________, 20% _________, and 4% minerals. |
protein; fat |
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The science of nutrition is developed by: |
Farmers and animal feeders Scientists and technologists Consulting nutritionists and veterinarians |
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Why has the science of nutrition grown rapidly? |
The availability of variety of models, such as cell cultures and animal models |
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Today, we know more than _____ nutrients are required in the animal diet. |
40 |
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Define Proximate Analysis |
A combination of analytical procedures intended for the routine description of feedstuffs |
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Name the different fractions of proximate analysis: |
Water Crude protein (CP) Ether extract (EE) Ash Crude fiber (CF) Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) |
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Feed sample--- moisure, 1-----> moisture free sample (dry matter)--------2, crude protein---------------ether extraction, ether extract--------->3--------Boil in acid, boil in alkali, 4-------> Crude fiber + ash------ 5, Ash separated from crude fiber |
1. Dry @ 105 degrees celsius 2. Kjeldahl analysis 3. Fat-free residue 4. Nitrogen free extract 5. Burn in furnace |
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After analysis of DM, nutrient composition can be either expressed on a "___________" or a normal "___________________." |
dry basis; as fed basis |
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How is DM analyzed? |
By placing the test material in an oven to evaporate all of the free water |
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What are the temperatures used for measuring DM? |
Usually 100 to 105 degrees celsius |
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Feed moisture can also be measured with ____________________. |
moisture meters |
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Name the device that give immediate results by means of a probe inserted into the test material. |
Moisture meter |
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Moisture meters are more precise than drying the test material in an oven. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; drying in an oven is more precise |
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Give an example of other equipment to measure DM besides oven and moisture meter. |
Microwave oven |
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Name the subunits of proteins |
Amino acids |
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Name the fat soluble vitamins |
Vitamins A,D, E and K |
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What is the simplest carb? |
Glucose: monosaccharide, body uses it as energy (20%) |
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Macro vs microelements: the body requires more microelements in the diet. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; macroelements |
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Why is dry matter important? |
Tells the nutritional value of the feed |
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Moisture meter isnt as accurate as an over but quicker. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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Is there a way to speed up the process of drying DM in an oven? |
Increase temperature of oven |
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Why do we need to measure ash? |
We dont, we measure it to know other materials in feedstuff |
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What is the formula to measure CP? |
N (%) x 6.25 = CP |
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When measuring crude fiber, if you repeat the process over and over, the results will be consistent. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; likely to get different results each time |
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What are we measuring in the Kjeldahl anaysis? |
measuring nitrogen relationship |
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18 to 20% of Volatile fatty acids are produced in ______________. |
butyric acid |
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Determining the DM in the following materials is challenging: |
plants that contain high concentrations of volatile fatty acids plants that contain higher amounts of essential oils, terpenes and other volatile substances silages or other fermented products that contain large amounts of volatile fatty acids (acetic, propionic, butyric) and ammonia some sugars that decompose, and partially insoluble proteins at temperatures above 70 degrees celsius |
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There are several methods to avoid excessive losses of volatiles during measuring the DM. Name them (4) |
Drying in vacuum ovens Freeze drying Oven drying at 70 degrees celsius or less Distillation with toluene |
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How is the 6.25 determined in the CP calculation? |
100/16 (16% of nitrogen) |
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Pros of the Kjeldahl method? |
Accurate and repeatable |
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Cons of the Kjeldahl method? |
Time consuming, use of hazardous chemicals, does not distinguish one form of N from another |
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Crude protein data are valuable for ____________ that can efficiently utilize almost all forms of N. |
ruminants |
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Ether soluble materials include a variety of organic compounds extracted with ________________ for a period of 4 hours or more. |
diethyl ether |
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Some important materials in EE include: |
true fats, fatty acid esters and some of the compound lipids fat-soluble vitamins or provitamins such as the caretenoids |
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EE method pros? |
A valid approach for materials made up primarily of fats and fatty acid esters |
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EE method cons? |
less meaningful if the extract contains large amount of plant waxes, essential oils, resins, or similar compounds |
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What is the fraction of a feedstuff that has a high caloric value? |
EE |
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The residue remained after the combustible material is burned off. What is this defining? |
Ash |
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What is the temperature used to measure the ash? |
500 to 600 degrees celsius |
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What do higher ash values indicate? |
Possible contamination with soil or dilution with other substances |
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___________________ includes primarily of plant structural carbohydrates such as cellulose and hemicellulose. |
Crude fiber, CF |
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How is crude fiber determined? |
By boiling of EE in dilute acid, boiling in dilute base, filtering, drying, and burning in a furnace |
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What is the equation to determine NFE? |
NFE = sample weight - weights of (water, EE, CP, CF, and ash) |
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What does NFE contain? |
Readily available carbohydrates, such as the sugars and starches Some hemicellulose and lignin, particularly in feedstuffs such as forages |
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Name the Methods of Analysis |
Proximate analysis Detergent Extraction Methods |
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What method of analysis involves the Van Soest Method? |
Detergent Extraction Methods |
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Feed sample ----- 1 -------> Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Neutral Detergent Solubles l Boil NDF in Acid detergent, Acid detergent solubles ---> 2--------3, cellulose dissolved -----> 4 What process is this? |
1. Boil in Neutral detergent 2. Acid detergent fiber (ADF) 3. Boil in 72% H2SO4 4. Lignin Van Soest Method |
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What does NDF include? |
Hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin |
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Neutral detergent solubles: |
Soluble CHO, starch, CP, fat Largely available to all animals for digestion |
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What is in ADF? |
Cellulose, lignin |
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Acid detergent solubles: |
hemicellulose |
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How does one determine Neutral Detergent Extraction, NDE? |
Samples are boiled for 1 hour in a solution containing primarily sodium laurel sulfate |
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The NDE includes soluble and insoluble fractions - name the solubles: |
Solubles such as lipids, sugars, organic acids, and other water soluble material, pectin, nonprotein, etc |
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The NDE includes soluble and insoluble fractions - name the insolubles: |
insoluble (or neutral detergent fiber, NDF) includes cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin |
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To determine ____________________, samples are boiled for 1 hour in a solution containing cetyltrimethylammonium bromide in H2SO4. |
Acid Detergent Extraction, ADE |
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The insoluble components of ADE usually referred to as what? |
Acid detergent fiber, ADF |
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What does ADF include? |
Cellulose, lignin, and lignified N (indigestible N), cutin, silica, and some pectins |
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What is bomb calorimetry used to determine? |
The energy values of solids, liquids, or gases |
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______________________________ is used to determine the mineral contents of feedstuff. |
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry |
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What is Gas-Liquid Chromatography (GLC) used for? |
Analysis of compounds that exist in gaseous form as well as fatty acids |
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Name some Automated Analytical Equipment |
Blood flow meters and blood cell counters High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Mass spectrometry Gamma and beta counters Plate readers DNA synthesizers Spectrophotometers Flow cytometers |
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Define digestions |
Preparation of the digesta for absorption |
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The passage of small molecules from the lumen of the GI tract into the blood or lymph systems. What is this defining? |
Absorption |
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What does digestion include? |
Chewing or mastication of food GI tract muscular contractions Mixing digesta with chemicals Enzyme hydrolysis of nutrients |
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The ___________ is a tubular structure used for: - ingestion and digestion of food - elimination of the wastes |
GI tract |
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The stomach is attached to the _______ which is attached to the cecum which is attached to the __________. |
small intestine; colon (large intestine) |
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The GI tract of mammals includes the: |
mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestine |
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Name associated digestive organs to the GI tract |
Liver (secretes bile into the small intestine) Pancreas (secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine) |
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Describe the GI tract of carnivores |
They have a gastric stomach and a relatively short and simple intestine Large intestine is simple and not sacculated Hind gut fermenters and have limited capabilty of digesting fibrous breeds |
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Dogs and cats have little to no ________ capacity and an unsacculated colon. |
cecal |
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Define sacculation |
A structure formed by a group of sacs. The formation of a sac or pouch |
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Why are the GI tracts of omnivores more complicated? |
To improve utilization of plant tissues |
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Pig has simple, but long small ___________. |
intestine |
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What do the cecum and large intestine look like in the pig? |
Pig has a moderately large cecum and a sacculated large intestine |
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Pigs and humans are __________ digesters. |
colonic |
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Describe the cecum and the large intestine of the rat |
An enlarged cecum and an unsacculated large intestine |
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The rats are cecal ________________. |
fermenters |
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Describe the GI tract of Sheep |
Complex and large stomach Small intestine is long, but simple Cecum is relatively large, and large intestine is rather short |
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Sheep is both pregastric and ___________ fermenter. |
hind gut |
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Describe the GI tract of a horse |
Simple and small stomach, with a relatively small intestine Large cecum, and a very large sacculated large intestine |
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Describe the GI tract of a rabbit |
Medium sized stomach Short and simple small intestine Large sacculated cecum Medium-sized unsacculated large intestine |
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What is a common behavior for cecal fermenter animals? |
Coprophagy (feces eating) |
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What is coprophagy? |
Feces eating |
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What does Coprophagy allow for? |
Cecal fermenters to consume diets with inadequate amounts of essential nutrients |
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During coprophagy, feces provides the animal with some vitamins and amino acids produced by ___________________ in the GI tract. |
microbial activity |
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Give example of ruminant animals |
Cattle, sheep, deer, antelope, camel |
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Give examples of nonruminant animals |
Hamster, monkey, kangaroo, hippo |
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Dietary habit for cattle and sheep |
Grazing herbivores |
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Dietary habit for deer, antelope and camel |
Selective herbivores, including folivores and frugivores |
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In omnivorous species, what are the incisor teeth used for? |
To bite off pieces of the food |
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In omnivorous species, what are the molar teeth used for? |
Mastication of food |
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The tongue is used a lot by omnivorous species. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; used very little |
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Nonruminants: the tongue lips and teeth are used for ___________ and ____________ food. |
grasping and chewing |
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In carnivorous species, what are the canine teeth used for? |
tearing and rending |
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In carnivorous species, what are the molar teeth used for? |
Only to partial mastication and crushing of bones |
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In herbivorous species, what are the incisor teeth used for? |
Adapted to nipping-off plant material |
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In herbivorous species, what are the molar teeth used for? |
Adapted to grind plant fibers |
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How does the jaw move in herbiorous species? |
Both vertically and laterally to efficiently shred plant materials |
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Saliva is secreted during __________________. |
mastication |
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What are the three bilateral pairs of glands saliva is secreted from? |
1. Parotids 2. Sub-maxiallary 3. Sublingual |
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Where are the parotid glands? |
Below the ears |
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Where is the sub-maxillary gland? |
Base of the tongue |
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Where is the Sublingual gland? |
Underneath the tongue |
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List the functions of saliva (3) |
Aiding in formation of food into a bolus Aiding in the taste mechanisms Providing a source of enzymes for preliminary digestive processes |
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Mucosal tissues lining the interior of the stomach of nonruminants are divided into: |
Cardiac Fundus Pylorie |
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Cardiac tissue of the stomach: |
The cells produce mainly mucus to protect the lining from gastric secretions |
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Fundus is in the ____________ region. |
Peptic gland region |
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Fundus tissue of the stomach: |
contains gastric pits which open into gastric glands |
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The fundus gland region consist of two types of cells: |
body chief or peptic cells parietal or oxyntic cells |
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What do the body chief or peptic cells produce? |
Proteolytic enzymes |
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What do the parietal or oxyntic cells secrete? |
Hydrochloric acid |
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What happens in the pyloric region of nonruminants? |
Cells produce mucus |
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The length of the small intestine is the same for all nonruminants. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; varies among species |
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Most of the absorption in the GI tract of nonruminants occurs in the ______________. |
Small intestine |
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What is the small intestine of nonruminants covered by? |
Fingerlike projections called "villi" |
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What do villi do? |
Increase the absorptive surface area of the small intestine |
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Each villi contains what? |
An arteriole A venule A lacteal |
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What does a venule do? |
Drains into the portal blood system |
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What does a lacteal do? |
A drainage of the lymphatic system |
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The first section of small intestine is "_____________". |
duodenum |
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What does the duodenum do? |
Produces various digestive secretions |
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What is released into the duodenum? |
Digestive secretions from the pancreas as well as bile |
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Where does absorption occur? |
Mainly in the jejunum and ileum, hardly in the duodenum |
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The large intestine consists of: |
Cecum Colon Rectum |
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The size of the large intestine sections vary considerably among species. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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What is the function of the large intestine for nonruminants? |
An area for absorption of water and secretion of inorganic elements |
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Considerable amount of _____________________ occurs in the cecum and colon of non-ruminants. |
bacterial fermentation |
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What bacterial fermentation happens in the cecum and colon of non-ruminants? |
Synthesis of some of the water soluble vitamins Synthesis of some of amino acids Synthesis of volatile fatty acids |
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______________, some amino acids and other small molecules may be absorbed from the cecum. |
Volatile fatty acids |
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___________ and ___________ play an important role in digestions, absorption and metabolism. |
Liver and pancreas |
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What does the liver produce in non-ruminants? |
Bile that functions in emulsification of lipids and micelle formation for improved absorption of lipids |
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What reduces food size for the avian species? |
The beak and/or claws |
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What is the purpose of the crop in the avian species? |
Storage and fermentation |
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The crop is the second part of the GI tract of avian species. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; its the first part |
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The ______________ is the site for production of gastric juices for avian species. |
proventriculus |
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What in the avian species has similar functions of teeth in mammalian species? |
the gizzard |
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The small intestine enzymes of avian species are similar to ones in mammals; so is absorption. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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What enzyme is absent in mammalian and avian small intestines? |
Lactase |
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The ceca and large intestine of avian species are the major sites of what? |
Resorption of water |
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Some _______________ through bacterial fermentation occurs in the ceca of avian species. |
fiber digestion |
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_____________ have no upper incisor teeth, but a few species have canine teeth. |
Ruminants |
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How do ruminants grasp for food? |
They use upper dental pad and lower incisors, lips and tongue |
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Ruminant are divided into: |
roughage eaters selective eaters transitional types |
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Describe the molar teeth of ruminants |
They have shaped and spaced molar teeth to chew on only one side of the jaw at one time |
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The lateral jaw movements in ruminants aid in what? |
Shredding tough plant fibers |
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Ruminants produce copious amounts of __________. (150 L/day in adult cows and 10 L/day in sheep) |
Saliva |
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Saliva functions in ruminants: |
A source of N (urea and mucoproteins), P, and Na, which are utilized by rumen microorganisms A strong buffer that aids in maintaining an appropriate pH in the rumen |
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In adult ruminants, the stomach may contain _______% of the digesta in the entire GI tract. |
65-80% |
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The ruminants stomach is divided into 2 compartments. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; 4 compartments |
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What are the four compartments of the ruminants' stomach? |
Reticulum Rumen Omasum Abomasum |
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Purpose of reticulum: |
transfers the ingested food into the rumen or omasum facilitates the regurgitation of ingesta for re-mastication |
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The omasum aids in: |
reducing the particle size of digesta controlling the passage of digesta into the lower tract absorption of nutrients |
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The __________ is a large fermentation vat with a high population of microorganisms. |
rumen |
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What is the function of the abomasum similar to? |
The glandular stomach of non-ruminants |
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The GI tract of ruminants is relatively short. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; its long |
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In non-ruminants, the food is mixed with ________________ before microbial digestion in the cecum and large gut. |
digestive enzymes |
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In ruminants, the digestive enzymes _________ the food after initial microbial fermentation in rumen. |
attack |
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The digestive enzyme classes: |
Amylolytic Lipolytic Prolytic |
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Amylolytic: |
Carbohydrates digestion |
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Lipolytic: |
Lipids digestion |
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Proteolytic: |
Proteins digestion |
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Where are digestive enzymes found? |
Saliva (eg amylase) Glandular stomach or abomasum or proventriculus Pancreas (eg saccharidases, trypsingen) duodenum (eg enterokinase) |
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What is the proventriculus? |
A major site of enzymes (eg pepsin) and hydrochloric acid secretion |
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Salivary amylase is involved in ________________. |
Starch digestion |
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Where is pepsin active at? |
Active at rather low pH (below pH 3.5) |
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Where are pepsin and rennin found? |
Digestive enzymes in stomach |
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What does rennin do? |
Important enzyme that coagulates milk into a clot in young suckling mammals |
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What does the small intestine produce enzymes for? |
Digestion of oligosaccharides or disaccharides |
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What are the digestive enzymes found in the small intestines? |
Maltase Isomaltase Lactase Sucrase |
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Name some complex carbs that are not digested by digestive enzymes. How could they be digested? |
xylan, cellulose; microbial enzymatic activity |
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How are the inactive proteolytic enzymes (proenzymes) converted to active enzymes? |
By enzyme produced in intestinal mucosa |
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Give examples of inactive proenzymes converted to active enzymes |
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase and trypsin Chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase are activated by trypsin |
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Pancreas releases its secretions directly in the ____________ via a pancreatic duct. |
duodenum |
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What are the saccharidases important for that are produced by the pancreas? |
In hydrolyzing starch, glycogen, or dextrins to maltose |
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After emulsifying the fats by action of bile salts, they are digested by what? |
Pancreatic and intestinal lipases |
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What are the two basic functions of water? |
Component of body metabolism Body temperature control |
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Water is required for all biochemical reactions in the body as: |
Solvent Transport medium Diluent Hydrolytic and oxidative agent |
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What is produced from the oxidation of organic components in the cells? |
Metabolic water |
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The metabolic water produced per gram of ________ is much higher than for protein or carbs. |
fat |
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1 gram fat -------?----------> 1.07 g H2O per g |
oxidized |
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'Fats (lipids) are more "_______________." |
hydrogen dense (more H per gram) |
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List the properties of water that allow it to control body temperature (5) |
high specific heat high thermal conductivity high latent heat of vaporization ready transfer of heat loss of large amounts of heat on vaporization |
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In ruminants, water is absorbed from the most sections of the _________________. |
GI tract |
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Where is there a net absorption of water in ruminants? |
From the rumen and omasum |
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In ruminants, there is a net inflow of water in the ___________, __________, ____________, and large gut. |
Duodenum ileum Jejunum |
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What does osmotic pressure do, as in, what is its function? |
Water absorption |
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Other factors that can affect water absorption include: (List at least 3 of them) |
- Polysaccharides such as pectin reduce water absorption - Indigestible fibers reduce water absorption - Diarrhea promoting factors reduce water absorption |
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Name diarrhea promoting factors that reduce absorption: (4) |
inappropriate diets microbial toxins Altered osmotic relationships Physiological reactions |
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Body water __________ with age. |
goes down |
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What is water content of the body influenced by? |
The age of the animal Fat contents of the tissues(inverse relationship) |
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The water content of the body one the basis of the ________________ is relatively constant among species (70-75%). |
fat-free mass |
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What comprises the greatest % of water in the body tissues? How much exactly? |
Intracellular fluids; 40% of body water |
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What does interstitial mean? |
Outside the cell |
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Extracellular water includes: |
Interstitial fluids Blood plasma (6%) Lymph, synovial and cerebrospinal fluids |
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What is the second largest water compartment? |
Extracellular water (1/3) |
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The body fat contains the most of intracellular water. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; the muscle |
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Body water content is a function of: |
physiological stage sex diseases |
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Other sources of body water include: |
contents of the GI tract contents of urinary tract |
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What is the extracellular fluid volume regulated by? |
Osmotic pressure |
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The extracellular fluid volume is regulated by osmotic pressure: |
sodium, the major cation in blood thirst and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Adrenal gland and kidney controls |
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The rate at which body water is excreted and replaced in the tissues. What is this defining? |
"Water turnover" |
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Nonruminants have higher water turnover than ruminants. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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Water turnover is influenced by ___________________. |
climate factors |
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Name water sources in animal's tissues: (5) |
- drinking water - feed water - metabolic water - water produced from metabolic reactions - preformed water associated with body tissues |
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Name ways water is lost from the animal body: (4) |
- urine - feces - insensible water - sweat |
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Where does sweat come from? |
the sweat glands in the skin |
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Where does insensible water come from? |
Vaporization from the lungs and dissipation though the skin |
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What is water drinking induced by? |
Dehydration of body tissues and reduction of salivary flow Oral sensations through receptors in the mouth |
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Water consumption is a function of: |
energy consumption body surface area in nonstressing situations heat stress temperature and seasonal differences |
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Total water intake can be influenced by the _________________ of the feed consumed. |
water content |
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What increases by high levels of dietary protein, fat and salt (NaCl)? |
Water intake |
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Give an example of a feed that would increase water intake? |
Silages |
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There is a high correlation between _______________ and water intake. |
dry matter intake |
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What environmental factors increase water consumption? |
Temperature Humidity Accessibility to water |
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How much water per kg of dry feed is required? |
2 - 5 kg water |
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Animals with high adaptability to __________ environments drink more water. |
wet |
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Why do sheep drink less water than cattle? |
They conserve more water therefore they require less |
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Birds require more water than mammalian species. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; mammalian require more water than birds |
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Adult animals usually require less water per unit of body weight than young animals. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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Physiological conditions such as ____________ and pregnancy will increase water consumption. |
lactation |
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Less active animals need more water than active and nervous animals. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; active and nervous animals require more water |
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Name 3 common effects of water restriction: (6 listed) |
- reduced food intake and productivity - reduced urine and fecal water excretion - body dehydration and weight loss - increased respiration rate - increased blood concentration - nausea and problems with muscular movements |
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Give examples of monosaccharides |
Glucose, fructose, galactose |
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Define monosaccharide |
1 molecule of sugar |
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Define disaccharide |
2 molecules of sugar |
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Give examples of disaccharide |
sucrose and lactose |
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Define oligosaccharide |
3 - 10 sugar units |
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Give examples of oligosaccharide |
fructo-oligosaccharides |
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Define polysaccharide |
>10 sugar units |
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Give examples of polysaccharides |
Cellulose and starch |
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Give the structure of simple carbs |
CnH2nOn |
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Give the structure of most complex carbs |
CnH2n-2On-1 |
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_____________________ are polyhydroxyl aldehyde and ketones. |
Carbohydrates |
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What is the most important function of dietary carbohydrates? |
Provide energy |
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What is triose and what type of sugar is it? |
3 carbon monosaccharide |
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Give an example of a triose |
Glyceraldehyde |
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What is tetrose and what type of sugar is it? |
4 carbon monosaccharide |
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Give an example of a tetrose |
D-Erythrulose |
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What is pentose and what type of sugar is it? |
5 carbon monosaccharide |
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Give examples of pentose sugars (3) |
Ribose Deoxyribose Xylose |
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Where can ribose be found?
|
Can be found in any living cell Component of ATP and RNA |
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Where can deoxyribose be found? |
Component of DNA |
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Where is Xylose found? |
Found in woody parts of plants Hay, straw, hulls, corn cobs Components of hemicellulose |
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What is hexose and what type of sugar is it? |
6 carbon monosaccharide |
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Define alpha-D-glucose |
Primary energy source Units of polymers such as starch and cellulose |
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Give an examples of hexose |
alpha-D-glucose beta-D-galactose beta-D-fructose |
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Where is beta-D-fructose found? |
component of table sugar (sucrose) |
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Where is beta-D-galactose found? |
Component of milk sugar (lactose) |
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Glucose + fructose = |
Sucrose |
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What is sucrose? |
Disaccharide Quick source of energy (table sugar) Found in sugar beets, sugar cane and molasses |
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Glucose + galactose = |
Lactose |
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What is lactose? |
Disaccharide Commonly found in milk sugar |
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Glucose + glucose = |
Maltose Cellobiose |
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What is maltose? |
Disaccharide Derived from starch digestion |
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What is the difference between maltose structure and cellobiose structure? |
The linkage is different, 1,4 carbons v 1,6 carbons |
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What type of sugar is starch? |
Polysaccharide |
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25-30% of starch in this form Straight chain of alpha-D-glucose Soluble in hot H2O What is this describing? |
Amylose |
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Name two types of starch? If they are starch, what type of sugar is it? |
Amylose and Amylopectin; Polysaccharide |
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70-75% of starch in this form Straight chain of alpha-D-glucose Insoluble in hot H2O What is this describing? |
Amylopectin |
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Starch has two configurations of glucose polymers: |
Amylose (linear structure) Amylopectin |
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Both amylose and amylopectin are glucose polymers linked via a ___________________ linkage. |
glucose-(1,4)-alpha-glucoside |
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Name some polysaccharides |
Starch Glycogen Cellulose Lignin |
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Glycogen has glucose-____-alpha and ______-alpha linkages |
1,4 and 1,6 |
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Where is glycogen found? |
Carbohydrate storage in liver and muscle of animals |
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Where is cellulose found? |
Primary carbohydrate found in plant kingdom About 50% of dry matter of plant Most abundant organic compound in nature |
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Plant cell walls are made up of what? |
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin |
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What increases with plant age? |
Lignin |
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What is the major component in the plant cell wall? |
Cellulose |
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The amount of lignin in feedstuff: |
vegetables and cereals |
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Cellulose is glucose polymers linked via a ______________________________ linkage. |
glucose-(1-4)-beta-glucoside |
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Where is lignin found? |
Primary structural component of mature trees |
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Only ____________________ are able to be absorbed from the GI tract. |
monosaccharides |
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What are poly,tri and disaccharides hydrolyzed to? |
Monosaccharides |
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How are poly,tri and disaccharides hydrolyzed to monosaccharides? |
Digestive enzymes of the host Microflora inhabiting the GI tract |
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The _____________________________ cannot hydrolyze glucose-4-beta glucoside linkage. |
carbohydrate-splitting enzymes |
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How is the glucose-4-beta-glucoside linkage of cellulose hydrolyzed? |
Gut microflora produce cellulase |
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Anaerobic fermentation of cellulose results in the production of ___________________________. |
Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) |
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VFAs include what? |
Acetic, propionic, and butyric acids, which supply energy |
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Amylose and amylopectin are hydrolyzed to _____________. |
glucose |
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Where does monosaccharides absorption mainly occur? |
Duodenum and jejunum |
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Glucose and galactose are absorbed how? |
By active transport (energy-dependent) mechanism |
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Monosaccharides are absorbed selectively from the GI tract of the rat: |
galactose and glucose>mannose>arabinose |
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|
Glucose is absorbed by which two transporters? |
Sodium-glucose cotransporters
Facilitative glucose transporters |
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Where are sodium-glucose cotransporters found? |
Intestine and kidney |
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What are sodium-glucose cotransporters? |
transportation against its concentration gradient |
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What are facilitative glucose transporters? |
Transportation down a concentration gradient |
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Name some facilitative glucose transporters |
6 Na-dependent glucose transporters 13 facilitative sugar transporters |
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What controls glucose transporter activity in adipose and muscle? |
Insulin and glucose |
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What is fructose converted to? |
Glucose and also lactic acid |
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Some monosaccharides are converted to glucose within the ______________________ cell. |
intestinal muscosal |
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Sugars share a common pathway for absorption, so they have a ___________________ between each other. |
competitive inhibition |
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Xylose absorption happens through active transport. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; not through active transport |
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Xylose does not show competitive inhibition with _____________________. |
galactose transport |
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How is glucose absorption increased? |
By chronically restricted food intake |
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|
How is absorption of glucose reduced? |
By short-term fasting (24-48 hour) |
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Brush border enzymes Sucrose -----------?----------> Glucose + Fructose |
Sucrase |
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Brush border enzymes Maltose --------------?-----------? Glucose + glucose |
Maltase |
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Isomaltose ----------?-----------? Glucose + glucose |
Isomaltase |
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Feeding your mammals with large amounts of sucrose results in severe _________________. |
diarrhea |
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Young mammals and ruminants produce no or negligible amounts of _____________. |
sucrase |
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Non ruminants have lower amounts of starch-splitting enzymes than ruminants. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; ruminants have lower amounts of starch-splitting enzymes than nonruminants |
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What happens when you feed adult pigs with lactose? Why? |
Diarrhea because of a deficiency of lactase |
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|
What do young pigs fed with xylose show signs of? |
Depressed appetite and growth and eye cataracts |
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In the absence of diseases the absorption of soluble carbohydrates often exceeds ______%. |
90% |
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Monosaccharides may be converted to glucose and glycogen in the ____________. |
liver |
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What is the process called where monosaccharides are converted to glucose and glycogen? |
Glycogenesis |
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_____________ is the storage form of glucose in liver and muscle tissues. |
Glycogen |
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___________ is a starchlike molecule and can be hydrolyzed back to glucose (glycogenesis). |
Glycogen |
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What does glycogenesis prevent? |
Marked elevation in blood sugar |
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What does glycogenolysis prevent during fasting? |
Low blood glucose |
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|
What is hyperglycemia? |
Elevated blood sugar |
|
|
What is hypoglycemia? |
Low blood glucose |
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Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis are under control of ____________ and ____________. |
insulin and glucagon |
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What do insulin and glucagon play key roles in? |
Maintaining the blood glucose concentration within normal level |
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|
What does glycogenesis require? |
Two molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for every molecule of glucose |
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|
Glycogen storage in liver and muscle is limited. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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When ingestion of carbohydrate exceeds the capacity for glycogen storage, glucose is converted to _______. |
fat |
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|
Describe the glycolysis process |
Glucose (6 C), 2 NAD is transformed into 2 NADH which will go to the mitochondria, 2 ADP transforms into 2 ATP, this process forms 2 pyruvate (3 C) which moves on to the mitochondria, Kreb's Cycle and respiratory transport chain |
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|
Describe the Kreb's cycle |
Pyruvate turns NAD into NADH and releases CO2, then becomes Acetyl CoA ----> Citrate ----> Oxaloacetate |
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|
Each glucose = _____ "turns" of Kreb's Cycle |
2 |
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|
Do more research on the products of the Krebs cycle |
... |
|
|
Define Gluconeogenesis |
Formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate metabolites (lipids and amino acids) by liver and, to a lesser extent, kidneys |
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All of the nonessential amino acids and some of the essential ones are _______________. |
Glucogenic |
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|
Some of amino acids are both glucogenic and __________. |
ketogenic |
|
|
What are the important lipids in nutrition of humans and animals classified into? |
Simple lipids Complex lipids Derived lipids |
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|
Define simple lipids |
Esters of fatty acids (FA) with glycerol or alcohols |
|
|
Give two examples of simple lipids |
oils and waxes |
|
|
Waxes are esters of FA with ___________. |
glycerol |
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|
Oils are esters of FA with ___________. |
alcohols |
|
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Define complex lipids |
Esters of FA with an alcohol that contain non-lipid substances |
|
|
Give examples of complex lipids |
Phospholipids Glycolipids Lipoproteins |
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|
What do phospholipids contain? |
Phosphoric acid |
|
|
What do glycolipids contain? |
carbohydrates |
|
|
What do lipoproteins contain? |
Proteins |
|
|
Lipoproteins can account for greater than 60% of lipids in forage plants (eg galactolipid). TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; Glycolipids can account for 60% of lipids in forage plants |
|
|
What are the different parts of glycolipids? |
2 fatty acid chains, glycerol and a sugar |
|
|
The fatty acids in glycolipids are typically ________________. |
polyunsaturated |
|
|
What components make up a phospholipid? |
2 fatty acid chains, a glycerol, a phosphate and an alcohol |
|
|
Phospholipids are an important part of _________________. |
cell membranes |
|
|
Define derived lipids |
Derived from simple or complex lipids by hydrolysis |
|
|
Give examples of derived lipids |
Fatty acids (FAs) Glycerol Other alcohols |
|
|
List the most important lipids in animal nutrition: |
FA Glycerol Triacylglycerols (TG) Phospholipids Glycolipids Sterols |
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|
What do fatty acids consist of? |
A chain of carbon (2-24 or more) and a carboxyl group on the end of chain |
|
|
What is the general structure of FA? |
RCOOH |
|
|
What is R in a molecular formula? |
A carbon chain with variable length |
|
|
What are the two classifications of fatty acids? |
Saturated and Unsaturated FA |
|
|
Each carbon atom (except the carboxyl group) is attached to two hydrogen (H) atoms. What is this defining? |
Saturated FA |
|
|
Define Unsaturated FA |
One or more pairs of Carbon atoms are attached by a double bond, and H has been removed |
|
|
Name two types of unsaturated FA |
cis isomer trans isomer |
|
|
What two types of chains are there for FAs? |
Straight and branched |
|
|
____________________ is the common form in animal tissues with an ______ number of carbons. |
Straight chain; even |
|
|
Where are branched FA chains found and with what number of carbons? |
in microorganisms and in tissues of ruminants; odd number of carbons |
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|
What type of FA chain can be found in fish oil? |
Long-chain unsaturated FA |
|
|
What does the FA chain found in fish oil consist of? |
linolenic acid eicosapentaenic acid docosahexaenoic acid |
|
|
The ______________________ depends on the position of the double bond in the carbon chain. |
biological activity |
|
|
Triglycerides are _________ of glycerol and FA. |
esters |
|
|
For triglycerides, FA may be the same or different in all three positions. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
|
|
The physical and chemical properties of TG are determined by what? |
Chain length of FA Degree of unsaturation of FA |
|
|
What is the structure of a triglyceride? |
A glycerol, 3 esters, and 3 fatty acid chains |
|
|
How many carbons does a TG with saturated FA need to have in order to be solid at room temperature? |
10 or more carbons |
|
|
How many carbons will usually create a liquid for TG with saturated FA? |
fewer than 10 carbons |
|
|
What can influence the absorption and utilization of TG? |
The position of the FA on the glycerol |
|
|
What constants are used to determine the chemical properties of TG? |
The saponification number The Reichert-Meissl (RM) number The iodine number |
|
|
The saponification number has an inverse relationship with _________________________. |
molecular weight of fats |
|
|
What is used as an indicator of the chain length of the FA in the TG? |
The saponification |
|
|
What is the saponification number? |
mg of KOH needed for saponification (hydrolysis) if 1 g of fat |
|
|
What is consumed in saponification? |
KOH |
|
|
ml of tenth-normal KOH needed to neutralize the volatile water-soluble FA released by hydrolysis of 5 g of fat. What is this defining? |
RM number |
|
|
What is the RM number used as an indicator of? |
The amounts of volatile FA in TG |
|
|
Beef tallow has an RM number of _____, but butter has an RM number of __________. |
zero; 17-35 |
|
|
What is an indicator of the degree of hydrogenation (saturation) of the FA in the fat? |
Iodine number |
|
|
Tristearin has an iodine number of zero, but linseed oil has an iodine number of __________. |
175-202 |
|
|
Define Iodine number |
The number of grams of iodine that will be consumed in a reaction with 100 g of fat or oil |
|
|
The hydrolysis of phospholipids such as lecithin produces: |
FA phosphoric acid Usually a glycerol A nitrogenous base |
|
|
Sphingomyelins do not contain glycerol, but contain what? |
FA, choline, phosphoric acid, nitrogenous base, and sphingosine |
|
|
________________ have higher unsaturated FA than TG in animals. |
Phospholipids |
|
|
What do the emulsifying properties of phospholipids allow them to function as? |
Lipid transporters |
|
|
Phospholipids in animals are more widely dispersed in body fluids. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
|
|
What is the most abundant sterol in animal tissue? |
Cholesterol |
|
|
Name other important sterols in animals besides cholesterol |
ergosterol 7-dehydro-cholesterol bile acids androgens estrogens and progesterones |
|
|
Where are bile acids secreted from? Where are they stored? |
Liver; gallbladder |
|
|
What does ergosterol yield? |
Vitamin D2 after irradiation |
|
|
What does 7-dehydro-cholesterol yield? |
Vitamin D3 after irradiation |
|
|
What are androgens? |
Male sex hormones |
|
|
What are estrogen and progesterone? |
Female sex hormones |
|
|
Ruminants completely depend on ______________________ to meet their glucose needs. |
gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Why do nonruminants not rely on gluconeogenesis? |
They absorb glucose directly |
|
|
_________ and ____________ are other precursors for glucose synthesis by gluconeogenesis. |
Lactate and Pyruvate |
|
|
Glucose catabolism efficiency of ATP capture = ~______% |
34% |
|
|
Where does the other 66% of metabolic outcome of energy go? |
HEAT ENERGY |
