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123 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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5 steps to feeding the world |
1. Freeze out agricultural footprint 2. Grow more on the land that we already have 3. Use resources (water) more efficiently 4. Shift in diets 5.Reduce in waste |
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Vertical Farming |
the practice of producing food in vertically stacked layers, surfaces, and/or integrated into other structures |
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GMOs |
genes from 1 species are extracted and artificially forced into the genes of an unrelated plant/animal |
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Hierarchy |
1. Body 2. Systems 3. Organs 4. Tissues 5. Cells 6. Organelles 7. Macro/ complex molecules 8. Micro/ simple molecules 9. Elements 10. Atoms -protons, neutrons, and electrons |
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what are the 4 most common elements in humans |
1. Carbon 2. Hydrogen 3. Nitrogen 4. Oxygen |
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Covalent Bonding |
sharing of valence electrons -all elements in the human body are covalently bonded --they bond well and tight because they are all small and their valence shells are pulled closer to the core |
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5 Ways to classify cells |
1. Shape 2. Type 3. Metabolism 4. DNA content 5. Gram stain |
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Bacteria Cell |
PROKARYOTE -lacks a nucleus -rely on diffusion -flagella for locomotion -can have a single gram positive or a double gram negative outer membrane -have been around for a several billion years -more bacteria than plants and animals combined -have ribosomes and DNA for synthesizing proteins |
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Plant Cell |
EUKARYOTE -chloroplast allows manufacturing of their own food -membrane bound nucleus -rigid cell wall -no form of locomotion -central vacuole that fills with water --has most all organelles that animals have |
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Animal Cell |
EUKARYOTE -membrane bound nucleus -fluid plasma membrane (no rigid cell wall) which allows for greater flexibility in development such as muscle tissue --need to be able to stretch and grow -unique eukaryote because animal tissues bond together by extracellular matrix (allows for communication between cells) ---cellulose in plants |
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Plasma Membrane |
Phospholipid Bilayer that consists of a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region -hydrophillic (polar) phosphate head -hydrophobic (nonpolar) fatty acid tail -regulates movement of substances into and out of the cell --"Cells gatekeeper": selectively permeable ----water, oxygen/nutrients, ions |
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Nucleus |
serves as the information center and administrative center -stores hereditary information (DNA) -coordinates cells activity (growth, reproduction, protein synthesis) -10% of cells volume -nuclear material: chromatin which gets wound around a histone into a chromosome because DNA is super long and it needs to be compacted |
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Mitochondria |
CELLS POWERHOUSE -produces ATP via glycolysis (anaerobic) and the Krebs cycle (aerobic) from carbohydrates, fats and protein --Aerobic Krebs cycle produces more energy -contain their own DNA that it uses to translate and transcribe whenever it needs to ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY |
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Endosymbiotic Theory |
long time ago bacteria cell engulfed mitochondria cell and instead of disenagrating it stayed and created a symbiotic relationship -produces ATP/energy for the cell and bacteria provides food and shelter |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum |
-synthesis and transport of proteins and lipids --Rough ER: protein production; imbedded with ribosomes --Smooth ER: involved with lipid production and detoxification |
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Golgi Apparatus |
CELLS POST OFFICE -processes and packages proteins and lipids for transport which are then synthesized by the ER |
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what fuels animal life? |
ATP AND GLUCOSE -energy stored in covalent bonds (stored potential energy) |
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what is energy? |
ABILITY TO DO WORK -the physical mass and energy keeps it in motion which is necessary to keep order |
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ATP->ADP |
after one bond is used/ broken it goes to adenosine diphosphate |
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Krebs Cycle formula |
6O2+C6H12O6 ---> 6H2O+6CO2+ATP+Heat Aerobic glucose metabolism |
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Forms of Energy |
1. Heat 2. Light 3. Chemical (stored and used in glucose metabolism) 4. Electrical |
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First Law of Thermodynamics |
energy ca be changed from 1 form to another, but it cannot be created nor destroyed -all forms of energy can ultimately be converted |
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calorie (c) |
energy needed to raise 1 gram of H2O by 1 degree centigrade -unit used to describe energy on food labels is the kilocalorie (C) |
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maintenance energy |
energy necessary to maintain your bodys functions -70% sustain cells and tissue -10% breathing -5% heart -20% brain |
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photosynthesis |
using energy from the sun to fix CO2 -plants capture about 5% of radiant energy from the sun |
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calvin cycle |
6H2O+6CO2___Light__> C6H12O6+6O2 -Anaerobic |
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low temperatures= _______________ Extreme high temperatures=_________________ |
-low temperatures slow reaction rates -extreme high temperatures destroy/ denature enzymes involved in reactions |
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what causes seasons |
temperatures fluctuate by more than 155 degrees Fahrenheit depending on earths position as it orbits the sun -drives several things in animal production such as shedding and reproduction |
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exceeding limit of thermal tolerance results in |
death |
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factors influencing lethal exposure
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1. exposure temperature -degree to which temperature exceeds limits of tolerance 2. Exposure duration -length of time to which the organism is exposed 3. Individual variation |
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Thermal Neutral Zones |
Defintion: range of temperature for a species where there is no metabolic costs to homeothermy -range in effective temperature where rate and efficiency of performance is maximized -no extra energy is needed to maintain stable temp. |
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once the ambient temp goes below the LCT the animal must _____________ head production about the _____________ ________ to offset heat loss. |
increase, basal levels |
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the challenge with going about the UCL is that intake ________ which in turn limits the new ________ source. |
drops, energy |
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when ambient temperature is low... |
energy/shivering is used to keep warm |
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when ambient temperature is high... |
energy/sweating is used to keep cool |
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baby animals prefer |
heat because they cannot regulate temperature and they lose heat more quickly due to the lack of surface area |
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heat production rises __________ with decreased temperature below the _________ in a range called the _______________________________. |
heat production rises linearly with decreased temperature below the lower critical limit in a range called the zone of metabolic regulation. |
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if ambient temp falls below the ZMR mechanisms for generating heat may not be able to keep up with heat loss and body temp will_____ which leads to a state of _____________________. |
mechanisms for generating heat may not be able to keep up with heat loss and body temp will DROP which will lead to a state of HYPOTHERMIA |
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Hypothermia |
increased metabolic production cannot compensate for heat loss |
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Hyperthermia |
evaporative cooling cannot counteract heat gain |
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ectotherms |
rely mainly on external energy sources -cold blooded |
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endotherms |
rely heavily on metabolic energy -warm blooded |
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homeotherms |
maintain a relatively constant internal environment -thermoregulation |
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poikilotherms |
body temperature varies directly with the environments temperature -thermal conformity |
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mammals are... |
homeothermic endotherms |
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homeothermic endotherms have a ________ range of tolerable body temperatures |
narrow |
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Poikilothermic ectotherms have a ________ range of tolerable body temperatures |
broad |
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problems with low temperatures |
-Thermal inactivation of enzymes faster than the rates of activation. --If they slow down too much we have to shut down enzyme pathways -Inadequate O2 supply to meet metabolic demands --constriction of blood vessels to warm up means that we need more O2 -Different temperature effects on INTERDEPENDENT metabolic reactions --REACTION UNCOUPLING -Membrane structure alterations -FREEZING |
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why is it bad if enzymes start to fail |
because they are responsible for maintaining cellular life and homeostasis |
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problems with high temperature |
-DENATURATION OF PROTIENS --structural and enzymatic/ loss of structure and function -thermal inactivation of enzymes faster than rates of activation -inadequate O2 supply to meet metabolic demands -Different temperature effects on INTERDEPENDENT metabolic reactions --REACTION UNCOUPLING -Membrane structure alterations --lysing -Increased evaporative water loss (challenge for endotherms) |
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Ectothermy (pros and cons) |
LOW ENERGY APPROACH TO LIFE --Pros: -less food required -lower maintenance costs (more energy for growth and development) -less water required (lower rates of evaporation) --Cons: -reduced ability to regulate temperature -reduced aerobic capacity (cannot sustain high levels of activity) |
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Endothermy (pros and cons) |
HIGH ENERGY APPROACH TO LIFE --Pros: -maintain high body temperature in narrow ranges -sustains high body temperature in cold environments -high aerobic capacity (sustain high levels of activity) --Cons: -need more food because their energy expenditure is 17x that of ectotherms -more energy needed for maintenance, less for growth and reproduction -need more water (higher evaporative water loss) |
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in cold environments, birds and mammals employ the following adaptations and strategies to minimize heat loss: |
-increase size: warm blooded animals tend to be larger in cold environments --heat loss is directly related to the surface area:volume ratio --BERGMAN RULE: increase size with increase latitude -Non-shivering thermogenesis: distorts the surface area of the skin as the feather/ hair shaft is made erect --goose bumps via smooth muscle contraction attached to hair or feather shafts |
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larger animals have _______ standard metabolic rates male animals have ________ standard metabolic rates Cold adapted species have a ___________ than expected basal metabolic rates |
higher, higher, higher |
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in cold environments, birds and mammals employ the following adaptations and strategies to maximize heat loss Part 2 |
-develop shortened extremities to more easily maintain core body temperature -Allens Rule: increase in climate temperature= increase in the size of appendages -improve insulation: fur and fat (having the ability to store energy as fat for metabolism to fuel exothermic reactions -have a counter current blood flow in extremities which act as a heat exchange between warm arterial blood and cool venous blood -Regional Heterothermy: extremities are cooler than the body core via vasoconstriction |
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systematic heterothermy/ adaptive hypothermia |
maintain of high body temperature at very low ambient temperatures is energetically costly and without adaptive hypothermia many mammals would perish in cold regions |
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Adaptive hypothermia |
allow the body temperature to drop -decreased heart rate -vasoconstriction (severe redirection of blood flow to extremities) -decreased breathing rate -suppression of shivering -decreased oxygen consumption (decreased metabolic rate) -decreased body temperature |
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types of adaptive hypothermia |
1. sleep: body temp drops 1-2 degrees and a small intake of O2 but can be awoken easily 2. Torpor (shallow hibernation): body temps drops 15 degrees, slower heart rate, takes longer to wake up 3. Hibernation: body temp drops to a few degrees above ambient temperature, breathing/ metabolic rate drop a lot, long time to wake up, shut down of circulatory system |
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adaptations/ stratagies to maximize heat loss in endotherms |
-avoid exposure --nocturnal -- fossorial -evaporative cooling (very effective but a costly mechanism in terms of maintaining water balance) -sweat -panting -spreading saliva |
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what is animal welfare |
How an animal is coping with the conditions in which it lives. An animal is in a good state of welfare if (as indicated by scientific evidence) it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behavior and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as fear, pain and distress. |
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what is a mandated science? |
government has asked scientist to research a specific thing such as climate change |
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the birth of animal welfare |
-started in the united kingdom in 1964 when people were into going against the government -Animal Machines: book that shed light on the meat industry and how the animals were being treated |
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The Brambell Report |
-After Animal Machines, British government appointed a scientific committee to assess animal welfare -determined the minimum standards for animals under human care --first time that the government asked for research to be done on animal welfare |
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The 5 Freedoms |
1. freedom from hunger and thrift 2. freedom from discomfort 3. freedom from pain, injury, and disease 4. freedom to express (most) normal behavior 5. freedom from fear and distress |
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3 different thoughts |
1. many scientist thought that we should just measure the BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING of the animal. 2. others cared more about HOW THE ANIMAL FEELS (affective state) not just how healthy they are. 3. others thought that we need to ensure animals live a reasonably NATURAL LIFE. |
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how did we resolve the 3 different thoughts |
just combine them |
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animal welfare scientists... |
1. identifies the VALUES of the stakeholders. 2. studies animal BEHAVIOR and how it relates to health, affect and natural living. 3. facilitates IMPROVEMENT in animal welfare. |
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Lameness |
when a cows walking is impaired due to improper care -problems with weight bearing, stride, speed, and keeping up with the heard -arched back and limping |
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steps to solving problems with lameness |
1. identify values -animal welfare issue because cow is in pain 2. Animal behavior research -identify the risk factor for lameness such as how the animal feeds, its resting environment, its barn environment (perching) 3. improving the environment -create softer surfaces, more space in freestalls, move neck rail back, dry the environment -GIVE THE COW THE CHOICE TO BE INSIDE OR OUTSIDE |
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when do cows want access to pasture |
night time because its cooler |
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animal welfare science take aways |
-arose out of peoples concerns for animal housed in insensitive settings -stakeholder values and science -goal is to help industries solve welfare challenges -no one-size fits all solution |
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type of protein in -eggs -meats -milk |
-eggs: albumin -meats: myosin;actin, collegen -milk: casein, lactalbumin, lactoferrin |
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what are proteins made out of |
amino acids |
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how many amino acids are there and how many do we need |
-20 - 9 are essential to the human diet because the body does not produce them |
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what elements are found in amino acids |
-C,H,O,N --many others in different amino acids but these are in all 4 |
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Conventional Depiction |
-every amino acid has an alpha carbon in the center -COOH and H2N on either side -R group: makes amino acids different from each other; determines their unique properties --vaires with each amino acid |
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what was the first amino acid discovered |
asparagine -from asparagus |
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where do proteins come from? |
OUR FOOD -then ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis |
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transcription |
-takes place in the nucleus -using DNA and cells of the body to synthesize it into mRNA |
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translation |
-occurs in the cytoplasm -enzymes add the correct nucleotides to match and then it codes for a certain amino acid to be added --mRNA uses Urocil instead of thymine |
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transcription+translation= |
central dogma theory or Gene Expression |
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what is a gene? |
a gene is a segment of a chromosome (DNA) that is a genetic code for a trait and determines how a trait will develop by regulating the synthesis of proteins or the function of other genes --GENES CODE FOR PROTIENS |
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What makes up DNA? |
-sugar: deoxyribose -Nitrogenous bases --cytosine, thymine, adenine, guanine -Phosphate group |
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A=?, mRNA=? C=? T=? G=? |
A=T, mRNA A=U C=G T=A G=C |
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codons |
-nucleotides that code for a certain amino acid -has to be a stop and start codon during translation -64 possible combinations however, there are only 20 amino acids which means that there are multiple codons for each amino acid for security -every 3 nucleotides codes for 4 amino acids ---more codons per amino acid= more frequent in nature |
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Primary Structure |
-amino acid sequence -string of amino acids held together by peptide bonds --dont stay in a linear shape, they start to fold in on itself |
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Secondary Structure |
-alpha helix -every 4-5 amino acids there is a turn and a hydrogen bond is formed between certain amino acids with an affinity to bond --hydrogen bonds stabilize the helix structure |
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Beta Sheet |
layer folds stabilized via hydrogen bonds |
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Tertiary Structure |
-postitive and negative charges of amino acids cause change in the structure -3D shape determines protein function -when protien starts to fold up into a unique shape driven by charges of amino acids --polar vs. nonpolar -hydrophobic core regions contain non polar side chains -polar side chains can form hydrogen bonds on the outside of the molecule --as soon as it leaves the cell it goes to cytoplasm where the combine |
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Quaternary Structure |
2 or more subunits or 2 or more proteins interacting with each tore -greatest level of a protein |
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amino acids are grouped together by their _______ and are then divided further into 4 categories: |
polarity and charge 1. polar uncharged R groups 2. non polar charged R groups 3. acidic 4. basic |
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types of proteins |
fibrous: collegen Globular: myoglobin or hemaglobin -more unique shape for bonding and transport |
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what factors can disrupt protein structure and shape? |
-temperature -pH -enzymes -pressure |
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Temperature and disruption of proteins |
-heat energy breaks the chemical bonds -affects 2, 3, and 4 structures -leads to protein denaturation and coagulation -enzymatic structure are lost |
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protein coagulation |
after a break in the bonds, the protein denatures and to minimize hydrophobic R groups from interacting with an aqueous environment, multiple proteins will come together. |
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pH and disruption of proteins |
-measure of H+ ion concentration -14 pt scale --- 1(acidic) -> 7 (neutral)-> 14 (basic) -most protiens want an environment with a pH of 7 -affects 2, 3 and 4 structure |
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Enzymes and disruption of proteins |
-cleave covalent peptide bonds -affects 1 structure which will then affect the rest and make an entirely different protein -works along with temperature and pH |
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Pressure and disruption of proteins |
-P=F/A , PV=nRT -forces water into the hydrophobic core of a protein --only need a small amount of pressure to fold a protein in on itself -affect 3 and 4 structures |
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Biological value |
-measure assigned to protiens/ foods with a lot of protein in them -How readily available protein from a food source is digested (and absorbed) and incorporated into the proteins (in the cells, tissues and organs) of the organism that consumed it --eggs, milk, meat, plant based proteins -higher scoring= more of the essential amino acids |
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simple carbohydrates |
monosaccharides, disaccharide -sweet and readily available sources of energy --sugars (disaccharide) --milk sugar (lactose + sucrose) |
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complex carbohydrates |
polysaccharides -made up of same thing as simple sugars with different arrangements --starch --glycogen ---muscle, similar to starch and takes energy to break bonds --fiber ---indigestible |
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types of lipids |
1. triglycerides
2. sterols 3. phospholipids |
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triglycerides |
most abundant -glycerol + 3 fatty acids -storage form of energy --more energy dense/ takes up less space -dosent bond to water --variable in length and presence/ absence of bonds |
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Sterols (steroids) |
-cholesterol is the most notable --cholestoral inside cell membrane promotes stability -four fused carbon rings --do not contain fatty acids, although can form a bond with fatty acids |
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phospholipids |
-always present -form a bilayer surrounding the cell --forms and protects cells -providing a selective barrier that regulates movement of molecules inside and outside of the cell |
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lipid deposits |
-subcutaneous: back fat -intermuscular: seem of fat between muscles -intramuscular: marbling of fat with in meant |
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how many fatty acids do we need? |
1. Linoleic 18:2 (n-6) 2. linolenic 18:3 (n-3) 3. Arachadonic 20:4 (n-6) |
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omega 3 |
found in freshwater oceanic fish, algae, shellfish and plankton -DHA: 22:6 (n-3) structural component of brain and retina -EPA: 20:5 (n-3) mental, cardiovascular, and skeletal health |
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omega 6 |
more common -found in cornfed livestock and plants |
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saturated fat |
-no double bonds between carbons -solid at room temperature --animal fats (butter, lard, tallow) -straight configuration which makes them easier to stack up creating a solid |
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unsaturated fat |
-1 or more double bonds between carbon -liquid at room temperature -plant oils --corn, soybean, olive, and peanut -bent configuration because the hydrogens get pulled closer together and if they bend it gives the hydrogens more space |
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transfat |
unsaturated fat with forced hydrogen which straighten it out and make it behave more like a saturated fat which extends shelf life -dosent contain a kink allowing trans-fatty acids to pack closely together |
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cisisomer |
is bent/kinked preventing cis-fatty acids from packing closely together -behaves like an unsaturated fat |
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alternatives to using transfats |
1. change shelf life 2. switch back to saturated fats 3. use natural occurring transfer |
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glycolysis |
occurs in the cytoplasm -common substrate: glucose, fructose, and galactose -anaerobic -net 2 ATP per glucose |
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krebs cycle |
occurs in the mitochondria -common substrate: pyruvate/ acetal-CoA resulting from gylcolysis -aerobic -net 17 ATP per pyruvate |
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vitamins |
organic nutrients needed in small amounts for specific function -fat soluble -- A, D, E, K -water soluable -C, Bs |
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Vitamin K |
-fat soluble -Role: involved in the synthesis of blood clotting -Source: --animal sources: liver, milk, cheese, egg yolks |
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Vitamin C |
-water soluable -Role: reducing agent (antioxident): cofactor involved in collegan synthesis pathways --most mammals synthesize in liver except humans and some others -Sources: fruits and veggies, animal liver and breastmilk |
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vitamin D |
-Fat soluble -Role: behaves like a hormone (expression of transparent proteins); Ca+ absorp and bone density -synthesis: skin/food -> liver -> kidneys -sources: some fungi, milk, sun |
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Vitamin A |
-Fat soluble -development and maintence of immune system and vision; antioxidant (skin and cell health) -sources: liver, butter, egg, sweet potato, carrots |
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B Vitamins |
-water soluble -involved in many things --malnutrition -source: meat |
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minerals |
Elements themselves; inorgainic -macro=needed in large amounts -- Ca, Cl, Mg, P, K, Na, S -micro=needed in trace amounts --iron, zinc -Functions: part of some amino acids and vitamins; metabolic reactions; enzyme function; body structure; transport oxygen |
