Anatomy Week 7-9

Front 1

Each receptor cell monitors

Back 1

A specific area known as a receptive field

Front 2

Referred pain

Back 2

Sensors originating in visceral organs are perceived as pain in other body regions innervated by the same spinal nerves

Front 3

Tactile receptor

Back 3

A sensory nerve ending that responds to various stimuli including light and touch

Front 4

What are the 6 tactile receptors

Back 4

Free nerve endings

A root hair plexus

Merkels disks and cells

Meissners corpuscle

Lamellated corpuscle

A Ruffini corpuscle

Front 5

Baroreceptors....their 4 locations and purposes

Back 5

Sensors located in blood vessels that sense blood pressure and relay info to the brain so that a proper blood pressure can be maintained.

Also are located in the digestive tract to trigger reflex movement of materials along the tract

Also located in the bladder wall to provide info on volume and trigger urinary reflex

Also located in the lungs to monitor respiratory rate and stretching

Front 6

Chemoreceptors

Back 6

A sensory receptor that transducer a chemical signal into an action potential. Detects chemical stimuli in the env.

2 classes:

Direct: taste buds

Distance: olfactory

Front 7

Olfactory receptor

Back 7

A modified neuron with multiple cilia extending from its free surface.

Cilia detect smell -> olfactory cell -> olfactory nerve fibers -> olfactory bulb

Front 8

Regenerative basal cell

Back 8

Divides to replace worn out olfactory receptor cells

Front 9

Olfactory epithelium

Back 9

Contains olfactory receptor cells and olfactory glands

Front 10

Gustatory receptors

Back 10

Detects taste. Inside taste buds which form pockets along the sides of epithelial projections called papillae

Front 11

Pupillary muscles

Back 11

Two sets of intrinsic smooth muscle within the iris control the diameter of the pupil. Bright light concentric muscles contract to reduce the level of incoming light. Dim light: radial muscles contract to dilate the pupil

Front 12

Aqueous humor

Back 12

Secreted by the ciliary body circulates through the posterior and anterior chambers. Lens position maintained by suspensory ligaments

Front 13

The closer the light source

Back 13

The longer the focal distance

Front 14

The rounder the lens

Back 14

The shorter the focal distance

Front 15

What eye muscle contracts or relaxrs to control distance

Back 15

Ciliary muscle

Contract = lens rounds = close vision

Relax = lens flattens = distant vision

Front 16

What affects focal distance

Back 16

Location of light source.

Lens shape

Front 17

Image formation

Back 17

Light from each portion of an object is focused on a different part of the retina. The resulting image is upside down and backwards

Front 18

Rods and cones

Back 18

The shapes of the photoreceptors outer segment. Their membrane discs contain the visual pigments, which are derived from rhodopsin molecules

Front 19

Movement of light in the eye

Back 19

Light - bipolar cell - cone/rod in inner segment - discs with visual pigment in outer segment to pigment epithelium

Front 20

Visual association areas

Back 20

In the cerebrum integrate the visual information to develop a composite picture of the entire visual field.

Eye - optic nerve - brain

Front 21

Otolith in the ear

Back 21

In the inner ear vestibular complex.

Sensitive to gravity and linear acceleration because their orientation in the head makes it sensitive to change in horizontal movement.

When the otolith moves, it distorts hair cell processes and receptor output increases

Front 22

Cochlea

Back 22

The sense organ in the inner ear that translates sound to nerve impulses to be sent to the brain. Fluid filled and snail shaped cavern

Front 23

6 steps in sound reception

Back 23

1. Waves arrive at tympanic membrane

2. Movement of tympanic membrane moves auditory ossicles

3. Movement of staples at oval window makes pressure waves in vestibular duct

4. Pressure waves distort basilar membrane

5. Causes vibration or hair cells against tectorial membrane.

6. Info relayed to cns over the cochlear branch of cranial nerve

Front 24

Midbrain

Back 24

Directs unconscious motor response to sounds

Front 25

Functions of the digestive system

Back 25

Ingestion, mechanical processing, digestion, secretion, absorption, excretion, defense

Front 26

Salivary glands

Back 26

Secretion of lubricating fluid containing enzymes that break down carbs

Front 27

Pharynx

Back 27

Muscular propulsion of materials into the esophagus

Front 28

Oral cavity

Stomach

Back 28

Oral: mechanical processing.

Stomach: chemical breakdown and mechanical processing

Front 29

Small intestine

Back 29

Enzymatic digestion and absorption of water, organic substrates, vitamins, and ions.

Front 30

Large intestine

Back 30

Dehydration and compaction of undigestible materials in preparation for elimination.

Front 31

Pancreas.

Back 31

Exocrine cells secreted buffers and digestive enzymes. Endocrine cells secrete hormones

Front 32

Gallbladder

Back 32

Storage and concentration of bile

Front 33

Liver

Back 33

Secretion of bile for lipid digestion, storage of nutrients , other vital functions

Front 34

4 layers of digestive tract

Back 34

Mucosa: folds, epithelium

Submucosa: loose connective tissue and blood and lymph vessels and nerves

Muscularis externa: smooth muscle cells...contractions

Serosa: outer membrane

Front 35

Mucosa

Back 35

Has folds that increase surface area for absorption and permit expansion after a large meal.

Has villi in small intestine.

Has an epithelium ( moistened by glandular secretions) and loose connective tissue

Front 36

Simple epithelia

Back 36

Single layer of cells

Front 37

Stratified epithelium

Back 37

Multiple layers of cells. Specialized depending on the location and function

Front 38

Squamous

Back 38

Flat.

Alveoli and lining of esophagus

Front 39

Columnar

Back 39

Column shaped

Linings of pharynx, anus, uterus, urethra.

Front 40

Cuboidal

Back 40

Cube shaped cells. Epidermis and lining of the mouth

Front 41

Submucosa

Back 41

Loose connective tissue. Large blood vessels and lymph vessels. Nerve fibers and sensory neurons. Submucosal plexus

Front 42

Submucosal plexus

Back 42

Involved In controlling and coordinating contractions of smooth muscle layers and regulating secretions of digestive glands

Front 43

Muscularis externa

Back 43

Band of smooth muscle cells, one in a circular layer and one in a longitudinal layer. Contractions.

2 layers with myenteric plexus in between.

Front 44

Parasympathetic stimulation of Muscularis externa

Back 44

Increases muscle tone and activity

Front 45

Sympathetic stimulation of Muscularis externa

Back 45

Muscle inhibition and relaxation

Front 46

Myenteric plexus

Back 46

Between layers of muscular externa.

Nerves. Sensory neurons. Interneurons. Parasympathetic ganglia. Sympathetic postganglionic fibers

Front 47

Serosa

Back 47

Membrane that covers the Muscularis externa

Front 48

Mesenteries of the serosa

Back 48

Double membrane sheets. Vessels, nerves, lymph. Stabilize position of the intestines and organs.

Front 49

Pacesetter cells

Back 49

Trigger waves of contraction that move digestive materials

Front 50

Peristalsis

Back 50

Movement of material along the tract.

1. Contraction of circular muscles behind food forces it forward

2. Contraction of longitudinal muscles ahead of food.

Front 51

Segmentation

Back 51

Mechanical mixing of materials in small intestine

Front 52

Uvula

Back 52

Helps prevent food from entering the pharynx too soon.

Front 53

Oral mucosa

Back 53

Stratified squamous epithelium

Front 54

Functions of the oral cavity (4)

Back 54

1. Senses and analyses material before swallowing

2. Mechanical processing

3. Lubricates material with mucus and salivary secretions.

4. Begins digestion of carbohydrates and lipids with salivary enzymes

Front 55

Lingual tonsils

Back 55

Lymphoid nodules thay help resist infection

Front 56

Salivary glands

Back 56

3 pairs that secrete into the oral cavity.

Mostly water but also has mucins, ions, buffers, waste products, metabolites, and enzymes

Front 57

Functions of salivary glands (4)

Back 57

Lubricates the mouth and dissolve chemicals that stimulate the taste buds

Cleans oral surfaces

Antibodies and lysodomes help control oral bacteria

Produce salivary amylase

Front 58

Salivary amylase

Back 58

An enzyme that breaks down starches.

Made by parotid glands (a salivary gland)

Front 59

Enamel

Back 59

Contains crystalline form of calcium phosphate, the hardest biological substance.

Calcium, phosphates, and vitamin D3 are essential

Front 60

What substance is the bulk of each tooth

Back 60

Dentin: a mineralized mix similar to that of bone. Doesn't contain cells

Front 61

Incisors

Back 61

Blade shaped teeth at front. Clipping and cutting

Front 62

Cuspids

Back 62

Canines.

Conical with sharp tip. Tearing and slashing

Front 63

Bicuspids and molara

Back 63

Flattened crowns with ridges. Crushing and mashing and grinding

Front 64

Esophagus

Back 64

Throat. Have stratified squamous epithelium and contains mucous glands

Front 65

4 steps in swallowing process

Back 65

1. Oral phase: reflex response begins. Compression of bolus

2. Pharyngeal: elevation of larynx and folding of epiglottis

3. Esophageal: bolus enters esophagus. Peristalsis waves

4. Bolus enters stomach through the lower esophageal sphincter

Front 66

Purpose of tonuge

Back 66

Compacts debris into a bolus

Front 67

Functions of the stomach (4)

Back 67

Temporary storage

Mechanical breakdown

Chemical breakdown of bonds by acids and enzymes

Production of intrinsic factor for absorption of vitamin B12

Front 68

Chyme

Back 68

Highly acidic mixture of partially digested food

Front 69

Rugae

Back 69

Prominent folds and ridges in the stomach mucosa, when the stomach is empty

Front 70

The stomach is lined by

Back 70

Simple columnar epithelium dominated by mucus cells

Front 71

What types of cells are in the gastric wall (4)

Back 71

Mucus cells

Parietal cells

Chief cells

Endocrine cells

Also have gastric glands

Front 72

Mucus cells

Back 72

Secrete alkaline mucus that covers and protects epithelial cells from acids, enzymes, and abrasive materials

Front 73

Gastric glands

Back 73

Secrete gastric juice

Front 74

Parietal cells in the gastric wall

Back 74

Secrete intrinsic factor and hydrochloric acid

Front 75

Intrinsic factor

Back 75

Aids in the absorption of vitamin B12 across the intestinal lining. Needed for erythropoiesis

Front 76

Erythropoiesis

Back 76

Making red blood cells

Front 77

Hydrochloric acid produced by Parietal cells

Back 77

Lowers the pH of the gastric juices

Front 78

Chief cells

Back 78

Secrete a protein pepsinogen, which is converted into pepin, a proteolytic enzyme

Front 79

Proteolytic

Back 79

Breakdown of proteins into amino acids or smaller peptides

Front 80

Endocrine cells in gastric wall

Back 80

Involved in the regulation of gastric activity

Front 81

3 steps of stomach movement

Back 81

1. Cephalic phase: sight..smells...thought of food prepares the stomach to receive the food. Cells in gastric wall are stimulated. So is Submucosal plexus.

2. Gastric phase: food arrives in stomach. Stimulation of stretch receptors and chemoreceptors. Stimulates myenteric plexus to mix and gastrin stimulates stimulates contractions

3. Intestinal phase: chyme enters small intestine. Release of CCK and GIP resulting in reduced gastric activity in the stomach

Front 82

No food is absorbed in the

Back 82

Stomach

Front 83

Why is no food absorbed in the stomach (4)

Back 83

1. Alkaline mucus covers surface so it's not directly exposed to chyme

2. Epithelial cells lack specialized transport mechanism

3. Gastric lining is impermeable to water

4. Digestion has not completed yet.

Front 84

90% of food is absorbed in the

Back 84

Small intestine

Front 85

3 segments of the small intestine

Back 85

1. Duodenum: mixing bowl. Receives secretions from the pancreas and liver.

2. Jejunum: Most of digestion and absorption

3. Ileum: longest. Sphincter controls flow of material into large intestine

Front 86

The mucosa of the small intestine is composed of

Back 86

A multitude of finger like projections called villi that are covered in Simple columnar epithelium carpeted with microvilli

Front 87

Each villus in the intestinal wall contains

Back 87

A network of capillaries that transport respiratory gases and carries absorbed nutrients to the hepatic portal circulation for delivery to the liver. Also contains nerve endings and lymphatic capillary.

Front 88

What are the 4 gastrointestinal hormones

Back 88

1. Gastrin: released by stomach upon vagus nerve stimulation and arrival of food, stimulates production of acids and enzymes.

2. Secretin: released by duodenum upon chyme arrival. Targets pancreas, liver, and stomach. Inhibits gastric secretion. Stimulates bile secretion and alkaline buffers

3. CCK: made in duodenum upon arrival of chyme. Targets multiple places. Stimulates pancreatic enzymes, inhibits gastric secretions, relaxation of sphincter at bile duct

4. GIP: released by duodenum and stomach. Stimulates release of insulin by pancreatic islets. Stimulated by large amounts of fats and glucose

Front 89

Gastrin

Back 89

released by stomach upon vagus nerve stimulation and arrival of food, stimulates production of acids and enzymes.

Front 90

Secretin

Back 90

released by duodenum upon chyme arrival. Targets pancreas, liver, and stomach. Inhibits gastric secretion. Stimulates bile secretion from liver and alkaline buffers from exocrine pancreas

Front 91

CCK

Back 91

made in duodenum upon arrival of chyme. Targets multiple places. Stimulates pancreatic enzymes from exocrine pancreas, inhibits gastric secretions, relaxation of sphincter at bile duct

Front 92

GIP

Back 92

released by duodenum and stomach. Stimulates release of insulin by pancreatic islets of the endocrine pancreas. Stimulated by large amounts of fats and glucose

Front 93

Pancreas

Back 93

Responsible for most of digestion

Endocrine: secrete insulin and glucagon

Exocrine: produces pancreatic juice, a mixture of enzymes and buffers for the small intestine. Stimulated by hormones from the duodenum when chyme arrives: CCK.

Front 94

The pancreas is primarily

Back 94

Exocrine

Front 95

Pancreatic amalyse

Back 95

Breaks down carbs

Front 96

What accounts for 70% of total pancreatic enzyme production

Back 96

Proteases. = trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase

Break down complex proteins

Front 97

What are the 3 functions of the liver

Back 97

1. Metabolic regulation: regulates composition of circulating blood. All blood leaving the absorptive areas of the digestive tract flows through the liver before reaching the general circulation.

2. Hematological regulation: removal of aged and damaged red blood cells, debris and pathogens by kupffer cells

3. Bile production: help dilute and buffer acids in the chyme as it enters the small intestine

Front 98

Hepatocytes. 2 functions

Back 98

The predominant cell type in the liver.

body.

1. Extract absorbed nutrients or toxins from the blood before they reach the rest of the body.2. Monitor and adjust the circulating levels of organic nutrients. Ex. Synthesis and breakdown of glucagon

Can also secrete bile

Front 99

What is the basic functional unit of the liver

Back 99

Liver lobes that contain plates of hepatocytes.

Sinusoidal are highly permeable capillaries that flow between the plates. Hepatocytes absorb solute from the plasma and secrete proteins back.

Front 100

Gallbladder

Back 100

Stores and concentrates bile prior to its excretion to the small intestine.

Front 101

Bile is released into the duodenum

Back 101

Under stimulation of CCK

Front 102

Major functon of the liver

Back 102

Synthesis and secretion of bile.

Storage of glycogen and lipid reserves.

Maintenance of normal blood levels of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids.

Inactivation of toxins.

Storage of ion reserves.

Storage of fat-soluble vitamins.

Synthesis of plasma proteins and clotting factors.

Phagocytosis of damaged red blood cells by kupffer cells.

Phagocytosis of damaged red blood cells by kupffer cells.

Front 103

3 parts if the large intestine

Back 103

1. Cecum: compaction

2. Colon: abundance of mucous cells and lack of villi. Pouches for distension and elongation

3. Rectum: temporary storage of feces

Front 104

Functions of the large intestine

Back 104

Absorbing.

Preparing fecal material for elimination.

Reabsorption of water and bile salts

Bacteria residing in colon generate 3 vitamins: K, Biotin, B5

Front 105

Carbs start being broken down in the

Back 105

Stomach

Front 106

Lipids start being broken down in the

Back 106

Small intestine. By bile salts and pancreatic lipase

Front 107

Proteins start being broken down in the

Back 107

Stomach by pepsin and then trypsin, etc in the small intestine

Front 108

4 types of digestive enzymes

Back 108

Carbohydrases: carbs and sugars

Lipases (pancreatic): triglycerides

Proteases: proteins

Nucleases (pancreatic): nucleic acids

Front 109

Hypothalamus

Back 109

Production of ADH and other regulatory hormones.

ADH: constructs blood vessels and makes u retain water

Front 110

Endocrine cells release

Back 110

Hormones into the bloodstream.

Travel to target cells: the cell must have receptors that can bind the hormone and initiate a change in cellular activity

Front 111

Two types of hormones (how they affect the cell)

Back 111

1. Binds to surface membrane receptors

2. Diffusion

Front 112

How do hormones that bind to plasma membrane cause a reaction

Back 112

1. Bind to membrane receptor coupled to a G Protein (link between first and second messenger)

2. Second messenger then activates cell activity

Front 113

How does epinephrine work

Back 113

1. Binds to hormone receptor.

2. Triggers G Protein

3. Activates adenylyl cyclase

4. Converts ATP to cAMP

5. Activates kinase enzymes that alter enzyme activity by phosphorylation (adding a phosphate group)

Front 114

Both steroid hormone and thyroid hormone

Back 114

Past directly through target cell membranes.

Steroid binds to receptors in cytoplasm or nucleus.

Thyroid binds to receptors in nucleus or mitochondria.

Thyroid hormone increases rate of ATP production

Front 115

The hypothalamus provides

Back 115

The highest level of endocrine control. It acts as an important link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Coordinating centers in the hypothalamus regulate the activities of the nervous and endocrine systems

Front 116

What are the three mechanisms of hypothalamic control over endocrine organs

Back 116

1. Production of ADH and oxytocin by hypothalamus neurons which travel through axons to pituitary gland then circulation.

2. Secretes 2 classes of regulatory hormones that control endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. RH and IH.

3. Contains autonomic nervous system centers that control the endocrine cells of the adrenal medullae in the adrenal gland..causes them to release hormones

Front 117

RH = releasing hormone

IH = inhibiting hormone

Back 117

RH: stimulates the synthesis and secretion of hormones by the pituitary gland.

IH: prevents the synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones

Front 118

Pituitary gland

Back 118

TSH, FDH

Oxytocin and ADH

Stimulated by the hypothalamus

Front 119

The hormones produces by the pituitary gland

Back 119

All use secondary messengers and cAMP

Front 120

Portal vessels of the pituitary gland

Back 120

Blood vessels that link two capillary networks, including the vessels between the hypothalamus and the anterior lobe.

Also called portal veins because they have the structure of veins

Front 121

What is the portal system of the pituitary gland

Back 121

The portal system ensures that all the blood entering the portal vessels reach certain target cells before returning to the general circulation. It consists of the portal vessels that have the structure of veins

Front 122

The regulatory hormones released at the hypothalamus are directly transported to the

Back 122

Anterior lobe of the pituitary gland by the hypophyseal portal system

Front 123

The rate of regulatory hormone secretion by the hypothalamus is regulated through

Back 123

Negative feedback.

The hypothalamus releases hormones to the pituitary gland which release hormones that affect target organs. These target organs then release hormones that inhibit the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus (prevent more RH from being released)

Front 124

TSH

Back 124

Thyroid-stimulating hormone is released by the pituitary gland when stimulated by the hypothalamus through the TRH hormone. It targets the thyroid glands which triggers the release of thyroid hormones. As circulating concentrations of thyroid hormones rise, the rates of TRH and TSH production decline.

TRH-> TSH-> thyroid hormones

Front 125

FSH

Back 125

Follicle-stimulating hormone is released by the pituitary gland when the hypothalamus releases GnRH.

FSH promotes follicle and egg development in females and stimulates the secretion of estrogen. A peptide hormone called inhibin released by the ovaries inhibits the release of FSH and GnRH through negative feedback control mechanisms.

Front 126

ADH

Back 126

Antidiuretic hormone is released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is released when the body is low on water. It affects the kidneys and causes it to decrease the amount of water lost in urine. It also causes vasoconstriction of blood vessels that help increase blood pressure

Front 127

What is the structure of the thyroid gland

Back 127

The thyroid gland contains numerous thyroid follicles that are lined by an epithelium. Each follicle contains a viscous colloid, a fluid containing the thyroid hormones. A network of capillaries surrounds each follicle. Under TSH stimulation from the pituitary gland epithelial cells remove the hormones from the follicle and release them into the bloodstream

Front 128

The thyroid gland contains C cells...

Back 128

C cells produce Calcitonin (CT) which helps regulate calcium ion concentrations in the body fluids. C cells release calcitonin when the calcium ion concentration of the blood rises above normal. The hormone target the bones and the kidneys. The resulting reduction in blood calcium levels eliminates the stimulus and turns off the C cells

Front 129

Rising blood calcium...

Back 129

The thyroid gland produces calcitonin in the C cells

Front 130

Falling calcium levels on the blood

Back 130

The parathyroid secrets parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Front 131

Parathyroid hormome

Back 131

Secreted by the parathyroid to elevate blood calcium levels. Affects kidneys, bones, and digestive system

Front 132

Chief cells

Back 132

Parathyroid cells that produce parathyroid hormone.

Monitor the concentration of circulating calcium ions and secrete parathyroid hormone when calcium concentration falls below normal

Front 133

Thyroid has ___ cells.

Parathyroid has ____ cells

Back 133

Thyroid has C cells that release calcitonin to reduce blood calcium levels.

Parathyroid has chief cells that release parathyroid hormone to increase blood calcium levels

Front 134

The adrenal gland

Back 134

Sits on the top of each kidney.

Has 2 parts:

Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla

Front 135

The adrenal medulla produces...

Back 135

Epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones affect most cells by increasing cardiac activity, blood pressure, glycogen breakdown, and release of lipids by adipose tissue

Front 136

The pancreas is primarily an

Back 136

Exocrine organ that produces pancreatic juice, a mixture of digestive enzymes and buffers for the small intestine.

The Endocrine portion called the pancreatic islets secretes insulin and glucagon

Front 137

The pancreatic islets are a part of the

Back 137

Endocrine pancreas and are composed of primarily alpha (glucagon) and beta (insulin) cells

Front 138

What do the alpha cells and beta cells of the endocrine pancreas produce

Back 138

The alpha cells produce the hormones glucagon and the beta cells produce insulin.

Front 139

The purpose of glucagon and insulin is to

Back 139

Regulate blood glucose concentration

Front 140

When blood glucose levels rise

Back 140

Beta cells secrete insulin causing the increased rate of glucose transport into target cells and glucose use. This causes blood glucose levels to decrease

Front 141

When blood glucose levels fall

Back 141

Alpha cells secrete glucagon which stimulates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose in the liver and skeletal muscle. Adipose tissue is also stimulated to release fatty acids for use by other tissues and proteins are broken down into their component amino acids for the liver to convert them into glucose. As a result blood glucose levels rise

Front 142

Many organs have secondary endocrine functions

Back 142

Examples are the intestines, the kidneys, the heart, the famous, and the gonads

Front 143

What is the endocrine function of the reproductive system

Back 143

In males, the interstitial cells of the testes produce the steroid hormones known as androgens, of which testosterone is the most important.

In females, estrogen is produced in the ovaries and is a steroid hormone that supports the maturation of the eggs and stimulate the growth of the lining of the uterus

Front 144

In the ovaries, female sex cells develop in specialized structures called

Back 144

In the ovaries, female sex cells develop in specialized structures called follicles under stimulation by FSH.

Follicle cells surrounding the ova produce estrogen

Front 145

How does the negative feedback of FSH work in the female ovaries

Back 145

FSH stimulates follicle maturation in the ovaries.

When FSH stimulates the follicles, the follicles also secrete inhibin, which suppresses FSH release by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland through a negative feedback mechanism

Front 146

What is adaptation syndrome

Back 146

Adaptation syndrome is also known as the stress response. It has three phases: the alarm phase, the resistance face, and the exhaustion phase

Front 147

What are the three phases of the adaptation syndrome

Back 147

1. Alarm phase = fight or flight. The dominant hormone is epinephrine/ adrenaline.

2. Resistance phase= long term metabolic adjustments. GCs and other hormones act to shift tissue metabolism away from glucose thus increasing its availability to neural tissue.

3. Exhaustion phase = collapse of vital systems. Homeostatic regulation breaks down. Lipid reserves are exhausted. Failure of electrolyte balance

Front 148

When a photon of light hits a retinal in the rhodopin molecule (visual pigment)...

Back 148

The retinal changes shape (flattens) then bleaching occurs. Bleaching is when the ATP is used to restore the retinal back to its original bent shape

Front 149

Vestibular complex

Back 149

For balance. Otolith moves with gravity, distorting hair cells with sensory nerve endings

Front 150

Organ of corti

Back 150

A structure in the cochlea of the inner ear that produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations. Vibrations of the structure cause displacement of the cochlear fluid and movement of hair cells against tge tectorial membrane to produce electrochemical signals. The Celia are graded from long to short providing a tuning capability