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218 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Respiratory System |
where blood gets oxygenated, where carbon dioxide (generated from cellular respiration) is eliminated, where gas exchange occurs |
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How many subparts does the respiratory system have? |
Two: upper and lower |
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Lower Respiratory System |
dealing with inside the lungs |
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Upper Respiratory System |
bunch of connecting pipes leading to lungs |
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Nose (nasus) |
Most exposed part of the upper respiratory tract; made out of external nose and nasal cavity |
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What separates nasal cavity into two pieces? |
Nasal septum
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What is nasal septum made out of? |
Bone, cartilage, striated muscle, and adipose tissue |
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What is the most important part of the respiratory system? |
Alveolus, where gas exchange occurs |
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Ala |
Curvature on sides of nose that allow nostrils to stay open |
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What are the four bones that make up the nasal septum? |
Perpendicular plate, vomer bone, frontal process of maxilla, nasal bones |
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Perpendicular plate |
First bone of nasal septum; part of ethmoid bone; located right between the eyes; provides support |
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Vomer bone |
Lies directly beneath the perpendicular plate; provides support |
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Nasal bones |
Flat bones that form bridge and articulate with the maxilla of the skull |
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Frontal process of the maxilla |
Forms lateral margin of septum; articulates with ethmoid bone |
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What are the cartilage that make up the nasal septum? |
Quadrangular; greater alar; lesser alar; lateral AKA upper lateral |
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Quadrangular cartilage |
Made out of hyaline cartilage; rests upon perpendicular plate and vomer bone |
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Greater Alar Cartilage |
Curved hyaline structure that forms the nasal nares (nostrils) |
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Lateral AKA Upper Lateral Cartilage |
Flattened triangular cartilage shaped structure; below the inferior margin of the nasal bone and the superior margin of the frontal process of the maxilla |
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Lesser Alar Cartilage |
Inferior to greater alar cartilage; part of cartilage that forms external nares (nostrils) |
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What is the tip of the nose made out of? |
Adipose -- fibro-fatty tissue |
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Deviated septum |
Medical condition where the septum is curved to one side, limiting the amount of air that can reach lungs; could be caused by trauma or genetic defects; makes it difficult to drain sinuses, leading to infections |
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Constant sinus infections can lead to what? |
Scar tissue buildup and polyps |
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What are the two kinds of polyps? |
Antrochoanal and ethmoidal |
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Antrochoanal polyps |
Maxillary sinus polyps
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Ethmoidal polyps |
Ethmoidal sinus polyps |
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What is the surgery to remove polyps? |
Septoplasty |
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What is the loss of smell called? |
Anosmia |
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What are the striated muscles that control the nose? |
Procerus, transverse and alar nasalis, depressor septi nasi, posterior and anterior dilator naris poterior |
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What are all the nose muscles controlled by? |
Cranial nerve (facial nerve #7) |
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Procerus |
Pulls skin between eyebrows downward |
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Transverse and alar nasalis |
Sphincter-like striated muscle; stretches over bridge of nose; connected to other muscles via aponeurosis; designed to compress nasal cartilage; reduces amount of air into lungs |
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Depressor septi nasi |
Pulls ala of the nose downward; constricts nares; limits amount of air into lungs |
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Anterior and posterior dilator naris posterior |
Pulls ala upward; dilates nares; increases amount of air into lungs (direct antagonist to depressor septi nasi) |
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What is the vestibule? |
The inside of the nose |
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What is the vestibule made out of? |
Simple squamous epithelium (it's part of skin) |
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What does the hair inside the vestibule do? |
Filters air we breathe in; mucous traps debris |
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What are the chonnae? |
Internal nares; further down nasal cavity, lead to trachea |
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Hard Palate |
Floor of nasal cavity/roof of oral cavity; formed from palatine process of maxilla and horizontal plate of palatine bone |
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Soft palate |
Connected towards back of pharynx to hard palate; continuation of nasal cavity; made of muscles |
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What muscles is the soft palate made out of? |
Levator veli palatine, tensor veli palatine, palatoglossus, palatopharyngeus, and muscular uvulae |
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Levator veli palatine |
Striated muscle that controls deglutination (swallowing); when contracted, levator veli palatine prevents food from going into the nasal pharynx |
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What nerve is levator veli palatine innervated by? |
Vagus nerve (cranial nerve #10) |
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Tensor veli palatine |
Striated muscle responsible for both deglutination and mastication; when contracted, tensor veli palatine opens up auditory tubes |
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What nerve is tensor veli palatine innervated by? |
Mandibular nerve of trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve #5) |
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Palatoglossus |
When contracted, palatoglossus elevates posterior aspect of tongue, thereby closing oral pharynx and preventing air from getting into the stomach; redirects air into trachea, so we can breathe through our mouths |
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Palatopharyngeus |
Also involved in deglutination (digestion) and respiration; when contracted, pulls pharynx over bolus of food, thus preventing food from getting into lungs |
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What nerve is palatopharyngeus innervated by? |
Vagus nerve (cranial nerve #10) |
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What nerve is palatoglossus innervated by? |
Vagus nerve (cranial nerve #10) |
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Muscular uvulae |
Part of uvula; loaded with sensory nerves; gag reflex |
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What is muscular uvulae innervated by? |
Vagus nerve (cranial nerve #10) |
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Conchae |
AKA turbinates; bony ridges towards back of nasal cavity |
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What are the three sets of conchae? |
Superior, middle, inferior |
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Superior conchae
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Very small, protect olfactory bulb |
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Middle conchae |
Redirect air into middle meatus (tunnel in between conchae) |
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Inferior conchae |
Largest nasal conchae; redirect air down little tunnels known as meatus (inferior meatus) |
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What is conchae made out of? |
Pseudostratified columnar epithlium (ciliated) |
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What is everything before conchae made out of? |
SImple stratified squamous epithelium |
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What is everything after conchae made out of? |
Pseudostratified columnar epithlium (ciliated) |
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What are the four pairs of sinuses? |
Maxillary, ethmoid, frontal, sphenoid |
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Where are all four pairs of sinuses located? |
Between superior and middle meatus |
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Sphenoethmoidal recess |
Posterior ethmoidal air cell and sphenoidal sinus drain into superior meatus through a hole called the sphenoethmoidal recess |
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Ostiomeatal complex |
Anterior and middle ethmoidal air cells, as well as the maxillary sinus, drain into the middle meatus through a small hole called the ostiomeatal complex |
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Ostia |
The hole where drainage takes place |
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Functions of sinuses |
1. Lighten up weight 2. Increase mucosal surface area - air pockets mean increased surface area, increasing ability to heat up lungs, moisturize air for diffusion 3. Regulate pressure inside skull 4. Increase resonance of voice 5. Absorb shock |
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What lines nasal cavity and sinuses? |
Mucous membrane |
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What do goblet cells inside mucous membrane secrete? |
Mucous |
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What is mucous membrane saturated with? |
Sensory and temperature receptors |
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What nerve are temperature receptors part of? |
Trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve #5) |
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What happens if there is a decrease in temperature? |
Efferent from brain tells mucous to increase production and blood vessels to dilate -- erection of mucous membrane |
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Pharynx |
Opening for respiratory and digestive system |
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What is the pharynx divided into? |
Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx |
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Nasopharynx |
Superior part of pharynx, connected to nose, extends from internal nares to uvula |
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What is nasopharynx lined with? |
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium (mucous membrane) |
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Uvula |
Extension of soft palate, loaded with sensory receptors (mostly pressure receptors) -- gag reflex |
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What is uvula made out of? |
Muscularis uvulae |
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Auditory tubes |
Connect middle ear to nasopharynx |
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What are auditory tubes designed to do? |
Equalize pressure in middle ear with atmospheric pressure |
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Oropharynx |
Extends from uvula to epiglottis |
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Fauces |
Opening of oropharynx in back of throat |
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What is oropharynx made out of? |
Stratified squamous epithelium (nonkeratinized) |
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Laryngopharynx |
Extends from epiglottis to esophagus |
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What is laryngopharynx lined with? |
Stratified squamous epithelium (nonkeratinized) |
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What is larynx composed of? |
Cartilage (hyaline) tubes |
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Function of larynx |
Provides ability to make sound |
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How many cartilages is the larynx made of? |
9 |
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How are the cartilages of the larynx connected to each other? |
Via smooth muscle and ligaments |
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How many cartilages of the larynx are paired? |
6 |
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How many cartilages of the larynx are unpaired? |
3 |
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Paired cartilages |
Arytenoid carnaid - bottom; Corniculate cartilage -- attached to arytenoid; Cuneiform -- attached to corniculate |
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Unpaired cartilages |
Cricoid, thyroid, epiglottis |
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Cricoid cartilage |
Largest unpaired cartilage; base of larynx; designed to keep airway open |
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Thyroid |
Sits on top of cricoid; Adam's apple; determines pitch of voice |
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Epiglottis |
Above thyroid cartilage; forms anterior-posterior flap; made out of elastic cartilage NOT hyaline; prevents food from entering respiratory tract and allows individual to breathe through mouth |
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What are vocal cords AKA vocal folds made out of? |
Ligaments |
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False vocal folds
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Superior ligaments of vocal cords, AKA vestibular fold |
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What are false vocal cords designed for? |
Prevent air from leaving lungs and and food from entering larynx when we're swallowing |
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True vocal cords |
Ligaments beneath false vocal cords |
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Glottis |
Opening between vocal cords; diameter of glottis controls sound |
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What are the muscles of the larynx? |
Cricothyroid, posterior cricoarytenoid, lateral cricoarytenoid, thyroarytenoid, transverse arytenoid |
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Cricothyroid |
Designed to lengthen and stretch vocal cords; attached to cricoid and thyroid cartilage |
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What nerve innervates cricothyroid? |
External laryngeal nerve (from jugular ganglion which connects to vargal nerve) |
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Posterior cricoarytenoid |
Opens/abducts glottis |
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What nerve innervates posterior cricoarytenoid |
Reccurent laryngeal branch of vagus nerve |
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Lateral cricoarytenoid |
Adducts/closes glottis |
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Thyroarytenoid |
AKA vocalis muscle; shortens (when contracted) and adducts vocal cords during speech |
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What nerve innervates thyroarytenoid? |
Reccurent laryngeal branch of vagus nerve |
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Transverse arytenoid |
Exists and connects inside arytenoid cartilage; when contracted, adducts and closes glottis |
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Phonation |
Ability to produce sound |
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Cough reflex |
Autonomic, reflex loop (nervous loop) within vagus nerve |
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What is trachea composed of? |
Muscles, hyaline cartilage, dense regular connective tissue |
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What is trachea lined with? |
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells (mucous membrane) |
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What is the structure of the trachea? |
15-20 C-shaped cartilaginous half-rings made out of hyaline cartilage, located on the lateral and anterior wall of trachea |
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Which wall of the trachea has no cartilaginous rings? |
Posterior wall, which has trachealis muscle and elastic (dense regular connective tissue) ligaments |
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What controls movement of air? |
Trachealis muscle |
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_________ of trachealis reduces amount of air and _________ increases amount of air |
Constriction reduces; dilation increases |
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Carina |
Last cartilage of trachea that's a T-shaped tube |
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What does carina divide into? |
Two primary bronchi |
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Where does primary bronchi enter lung? |
Hilum |
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What are primary bronchi composed of? |
C-shaped cartilaginous half-rings, smooth (trachealis) muscle, ligaments |
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What is the epithelium of primary bronchi? |
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium |
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What do primary bronchi divide into? |
Secondary (lobular) bronchi |
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Primary bronchii in left lung divide into how many secondary bronchii? |
2 |
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Primary bronchii in right lung divide into how many secondary bronchii? |
3 |
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What is the hyaline cartilage in secondary bronchii called? |
Cartilaginous plate |
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How is the epithelium of secondary bronchii different from primary? |
Goblet cells aren't everywhere, but gather together to form seromucous glands (secrete mucous) |
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What do secondary bronchi divide into? |
Tertiary segmental bronchi |
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What is the difference in structure between secondary and tertiary bronchi |
Cartilaginous plate in tertiary segmental bronchi is smaller |
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How many more divisions do tertiary segmental bronchi have before they become smaller? |
16 |
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What do tertiary segmental bronchi divide into? |
Terminal bronchi |
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Structure of terminal bronchi |
No cartilage, just smooth muscle and ligaments |
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Epithelium of terminal bronchi |
Ciliated simple columnar epithelium |
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As terminal bronchi get smaller, what does the epithelium change into? |
Simple cuboidal epithelium |
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What marks the end of the conducting zone? |
When epithelium of terminal bronchi changes into simple cuboidal epithelium |
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In the absence of cilia in the small pipes, how does body deal with debris or garbage? |
Dust cells (macrophages inside lung) phagocytize debris |
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Asthma |
Chronic disease of respiratory system |
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What causes symptoms of asthma? |
1. Constriction of smooth muscle inside airway 2. Mucous buildup |
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Symptoms of asthma |
Coughing, wheezing |
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Triggers of asthma |
Allergens, cold air, excessive exercise, stress |
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Treatment of asthma |
Beta 2 Blocker -- blocks adrenergic nerve which blocks noradrenaline's effect, prevents smooth muscle contraction Corticosteroids -- bad side effects |
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Respiratory zone |
Extends from terminal bronchiole to alveoli |
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What do terminal bronchiole branch into? |
Respiratory bronchiole |
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What is the epithelium of respiratory bronchiole? |
Simple cuboidal |
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Are respiratory bronchiole involved in gas exchange? |
No, they're just a pipe that conducts air |
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What do respiratory bronchioles branch into? |
Alveolar ducts |
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Are alveolar ducts involved in gas exchange? |
No |
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What is the epithelium of alveolar ducts? |
Simple squamous |
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What do alveolar ducts connect to? |
Alveolar sac |
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What is inside the alveolar sac? |
Alveoli |
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What is alveoli made out of? |
Simple squamous epithelium |
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Alveoli |
Site of gas exchange |
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What cells are alveoli made of? |
Dust cells, Type I pneumocyte, Type II pneumocyte |
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Type I Pneumocyte |
Simple squamous epithelial cells involved in diffusion and gas exchange with capillaries that carry blood |
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Type II Pneumocyte |
Secretes compound known as surfactant, in addition to gas exchange |
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Surfactant |
Reduces surface tension inside lungs |
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Gas Exchange |
1. Pulmonary arteries comes in via hilum, divides with bronchi and eventually comes down to alveoli and becomes capillaries 2. Blood from pulmonary artery is deoxygenated 3. Inside of blood has high CO2 levels 4. CO2 diffuse into alveoli and we breathe it out 5. When we breathe in, oxygen from alveoli diffuses into capillaries 6. Oxygenated blood travels out in vessels, out through hilum, into heart via pulmonary veins |
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Hilum |
Root of lungs |
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Pons Respiratory Group |
Collection of neuro cells in pons that control respiration |
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Which group monitors CO2 levels in the bloodstream? |
Pons respiratory group |
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How many regions does the medulla respiratory group have? |
2 - dorsal and ventral |
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Dorsal respiratory groups |
longitudinal columns of bilateral nerve cells in dorsal region of medulla oblongata |
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Ventral respiratory groups |
longitudinal column of nerve cells in ventral part of medulla oblongata |
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Pneumotaxic center |
found in the Kölliker-Fuse and medial parabrachial nuclei of the pons |
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What does the pneumotaxic center control? |
Respiratory reflex and monitors Hering-Breuer reflex (which prevents overextension of lungs) |
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What regulates CO2 and O2? |
Peripheral chemoreceptors and central chemoreceptors |
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Peripheral chemoreceptor |
Located in carotid artery and aorta, monitors CO2 levels and deduces acidic or basic level |
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Central chemoreceptor |
Located in chemosensitive area of medulla oblongata (area also involved in respiration), senses amount of hydrogen ions in cerebral spinal fluid |
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High concentration of hydrogen ions |
high acidity |
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Hypercapnia |
increased CO2 levels which means increased carbonic acid and decrease in blood pH |
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Hypocapnia |
Decrease in CO2 levels which means decreased carbonic acid and increase in blood pH |
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Hypoxia |
Lack of oxygen in bloodstream |
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Right lung |
Contains 3 lobes, separated by fissure and independent of each other |
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What are the lobes of the right lung supplied by? |
Each lobe is supplied by a secondary bronchi |
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Left lung |
2 lobes |
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What are the lobes of the left lung supplied by? |
Each lobe of the left lung is supplied by a secondary bronchi |
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What are each of the lobes of the lungs further subdivided into? |
Bronchiole pulmonary segments, isolated by connective tissue |
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What are each of the bronchiole pulmonary segments supplied by? |
Tertiary bronchi |
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How many bronchiole pulmonary segments are in the right lung? |
10 |
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How many bronchiole pulmonary segments are in the left lung? |
9 |
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What are bronchiole pulmonary segments further subdivided into? |
Lobules not completely separated from one another |
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What are each of the lobules supplied by? |
Terminal bronchiole |
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Muscles of inspiration (breathing in) |
Diaphragm (thoracic diaphragm), external intercostal, pectoralis minor, scalenes, and sternocleidomastoid |
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Diaphragm |
AKA thoracic diaphragm, thick piece of smooth muscle that separates thoracic from abdominal cavity, located underneath rib cage, innervated by phrenic nerve (C3-C5) |
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External intercostal |
Outside of rib cage, 11 of them on each side of rib cage, located between ribs, innervated by intercostal nerves T1-T11 |
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Pectoralis minor |
Sits beneath pectoralis major, innervated by medial pectoral nerve C8-T1 (which arises from medial cord of brachioplexis) |
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How many scalenes are involved in respiration? |
3 - scalenus posterior, scalenus medius, and scalenus anterior |
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Scalenus posterior |
Innervated by posterior rami of C5-C8 and lateral muscular branch of C3-C4 |
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Scalenus medius |
Innervated by anterior rami of C3-C4 and lateral musculus branches of C3-C4 |
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Scalenus anterior |
Behind sternocleidomastoid, innervated by anterior rami of C5-C8 |
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Sternocleidomastoid |
Innervated by anterior rami of C2-C3 and accessory nerve |
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Inspiration |
Muscles expand rib cage, reducing pressure (alveolar pressure) inside lungs, pushes air into lungs |
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Expiration |
Muscles contract rib cage, increasing alveolar pressure inside lungs, pushes air outside |
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Muscles of expiration |
Internal intercostals, rectus abdominus, external obliques, internal oblique, transversis abdominis |
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Internal intercostals |
Innervated by intercostal nerve |
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Rectus abdominis |
Connected by linea alba (aponeurosis), innervated by anterior division of T7-T11 (thoracic internal nerve - thoracoabdominal nerve) |
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External obliques |
Innervated by T6-T11 of intercostal nerves and the subcostal nerve |
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Internal oblique |
Innervated by intercostal nerve T7-T11, subcostal nerve, illial-hypogastric nerve (L1), illial-lingual nerve (L1) |
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Transversis abdominis |
Innervated by intercostal nerve T7-T11, subcostal nerve, illial-hypogastric nerve (L1), illial-lingual nerve (L1) |
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Atmospheric pressure |
AKA barometric pressure, outside of lungs |
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Alveolar pressure |
Inside lungs |
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Pleura of lungs |
Connective tissue that surrounds lungs |
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What separates pleura? |
Mediastinum |
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What is pleura subdivided into? |
Visceral pleura and parietal pleura |
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Parietal pleura |
Covers internal thoracic wall (outermost of connective tissue) |
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Visceral pleura |
Covers lung itself |
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Where does visceral pleura end? |
Hilum |
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What is the fluid-filled space between the visceral and parietal pleura? |
Pleural cavity filled with parietal fluids |
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What are the 2 lymphatic vessels in the lungs? |
Superficial lymphatic vessel and deep vessel |
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Superficial lymphatic vessel |
Drains from visceral pleura and upper surface of lungs |
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Deep lymphatic vessel |
Drains deep part of lungs |
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Causes of lung cancer |
Genetics, carcinogens, aflatoxin, benzene, EDB, formaldehyde, hepatitis B |
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Tied for #1 cause of lung cancer |
Radon gas and cigarette smoke |
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Symptoms of lung cancer |
Dyspensia (shortness of breath), hemotosis (coughing up blood), chest pain, abdominal pain, catsia (massive & rapid weight loss), fatigue, loss of appetite, dysphonia (hoarse voice) |
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What are the two types of lung cancer? |
Non small celled lung cancer AKA NSCLC (80%) and small celled lung cancer AKA SCLC (20%) |
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NSCLC |
Squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma |
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Squamous cell carcinoma |
Pneumocytes mutate |
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Adenocarcinoma |
Tend to gather around bronchi/bronchioles/terminal bronchioles |
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SCLC |
Oat cell carcinoma, extremely fast growing |
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Large celled carcinoma |
Fast growing, tend to grow on surface of lungs |
