Anatomy Physiology I-Nsci 280-Chapter 2

Front 1

Matter is defined as

Back 1

Anything that occupies space and has mass

Front 2

The mass of an object is ____ even at different altitudes.

Back 2

constant

Front 3

The mass of an object is equal to the amount of ____ in the object

Back 3

matter

Front 4

Energy is defined as

Back 4

the capability to do work, or to to put matter into motion

Front 5

The two types of energy are _____ and _____

Back 5

kinetic and potential

Front 6

Kinetic energy is energy in ____

Back 6

action

Front 7

Potential energy is _____ energy

Back 7

stored

Front 8

Chemical energy is the form stored in

Back 8

bonds of chemical substances

Front 9

When chemical reactions occur that rearranges the atoms of the chemicals the a certain way, what happens pertaining to energy?

Back 9

Potential energy is unleashed, and becomes kinetic energy.

Front 10

Chemical energy in the form of _____ is the most useful form of energy in living systems because it is used to run all functional processes

Back 10

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Front 11

______ energy results from the movement of charged particles.

Back 11

Electrical

Front 12

______ energy is energy directly involved in moving matter.

Back 12

mechanical

Front 13

______ energy is energy that travels in waves

Back 13

Radiant or electromagnetic

Front 14

When matter is heated, the _____ energy of its particles ______

Back 14

kinetic, move more quickly

Front 15

All matter is composed of _____

Back 15

elements

Front 16

How many elements are known with certainty?

Back 16

112 elements (with 113, 114, 115, 116 alleged)

Front 17

How many elements occure in nature?

Back 17

92

Front 18

Which four elements make up 96% of body weight?

Back 18

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen.

Front 19

______ properties are those we can detect with our senses

Back 19

physical

Front 20

______ properties pertain to the way atoms interact with other atoms

Back 20

chemical

Front 21

What is the symbol for protons?

Back 21

p+

Front 22

What is the symbol for neutrons?

Back 22

n0

Front 23

Protons and neutrons have _____ masses

Back 23

approximately the same

Front 24

Protons and neutrons mass are measured in what measurement unit?

Back 24

atomic mass units

Front 25

Electrons bear a charge ____ to the strength of the positive charge of the protons.

Back 25

equal

Front 26

All atoms are electrically _____

Back 26

neutral

Front 27

The atomic number of any atom is equal to the number of _____ in its nucleus

Back 27

protons

Front 28

The number of protons is always equal to the number of ____ in an atom

Back 28

electrons

Front 29

The ______ of an atom is the sum of the masses of its protons and neutrons.

Back 29

mass number

Front 30

Hydrogen, has only one proton in its nucleus, so its so its atomic and mass numbers are

Back 30

1

Front 31

Helium, with two protons and two neutrons, has a mass number of ______

Back 31

4

Front 32

Nearly all known elements have two or more structural variations called ______

Back 32

isotopes

Front 33

Isotopes have _______ number of protons and electrons, but have _____ number of neutrons

Back 33

the same, different

Front 34

The atomic weight of an element is the ______ of the relative weights of all the isotopes of an element, relative to their abundance in nature.

Back 34

average

Front 35

The heavier isotopes of many elements are unstable, and their atoms ______ ______into more stable forms

Back 35

decompose spontaneously

Front 36

The spontaneous decomposition of isotopes' atoms into more stable forms (atomic decay) is called ______

Back 36

radioactivity.

Front 37

Isotopes that exhibit radioactivity are called _____

Back 37

radioisotopes.

Front 38

The time required for a radioisotope to one half of its radioactivity is called its ______

Back 38

half life

Front 39

_____ emission has the lowest penetrating power

Back 39

Alpha

Front 40

_____ emission has the greatest penetrating power

Back 40

Gamma

Front 41

A combination of one or more atoms held together by chemical bonds is called a _____

Back 41

molecule

Front 42

If two or more atoms of the same element combine, the resulting substance is called a ______ of that element.

Back 42

molecule

Front 43

When two or more different kinds of atoms bond, they form molecules of a ______

Back 43

compound

Front 44

Mixtures are substances composed of two or more components ______ intermixed

Back 44

physically

Front 45

The three types of mixtures are called

Back 45

solutions, colloids, and suspensions

Front 46

Solutions are ______ mixtures

Back 46

homogenous

Front 47

The substance present in the greatest amount is called the ______ and the substance present in smaller amounts are called ______

Back 47

solvent, solutes

Front 48

_____ is the body's chief solvent

Back 48

Water

Front 49

True solutions are usually

Back 49

transparent

Front 50

Solutes of true solutions are/are not visible to the naked eye, and do/do not settle out or scatter light.

Back 50

not visible to the naked eye, and do not settle out or scatter light

Front 51

A concentration of a solution can be represented in _______ or _______

Back 51

percentages or molarity

Front 52

A mole of any element or compound is equal to its _____ weight or _____ weight weighted out in grams.

Back 52

atomic, molecular

Front 53

What is the molecular weight of glucose, i.e 1 M weight?

C6H1206

Back 53

See page 31

(#atoms X Atomic Wt. =Ttl atomic weight)
C 6 X 12.001 = 72.006
H 12 X 1.008 = 12.096
O 6 X 15.999 = 95.994
1 M of glucose=180.156 grams

Front 54

Define Avagadro's number

Back 54

One mole of any substance will have 6.02X10 23rd power molecules of that substance.

Front 55

Colloids (emulsions) are ____
mixtures that often appear translucent or milky.

Back 55

heterogenous

Front 56

Particles in colloids do/do not settle out and do/do not scatter light

Back 56

do not settle out, do scatter light

Front 57

A unique property to colloids is the ability of some to undergoe ___ ____ transformation

Back 57

sol-gel (think Jello)

Front 58

_____ in cells is considered a sol gel

Back 58

cytosol

Front 59

Suspensions are ______ mixtures with large, often visible _____

Back 59

heterogeneous, solutes

Front 60

Compounds can only be separated into their constiuent atoms only by _____ means

Back 60

chemical

Front 61

To say that a substance is ______, it means that a sample taken from any part of the substance has the exact same composition as any other part

Back 61

homogeneous

Front 62

The atoms known so far can have electrons in __ shells

Back 62

7

Front 63

Electrons farthest from the nucleus have the ___ potential energy

Back 63

most

Front 64

Electrons farthest from the nucleus are the ____ likely to interact chemically with other atoms

Back 64

most

Front 65

When the outermost energy level (shell) of an atom is filled to capacity or has 8 electrons, the atom is stable and considered ____

Back 65

inert (unreactive)

Front 66

In atoms that have more than 20 electrons, the evergy levels beyond level ___ can contain more than 8 electrons

Back 66

2

Front 67

Valence shell is used to indicate an atom's _____ energy level, or that portion of it that are chemically reactive

Back 67

outermost

Front 68

Define Octet rule (rule of 8's)

Back 68

Atoms tend to interact in such a way that they have 8 electrons in their valence shell.

Front 69

Name the three types of chemical bonds

Back 69

ionic, covalent, and hydrogen

Front 70

Define ionic bond

Back 70

chemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other.

Front 71

Define anion

Back 71

The atom that gains one or more electrons (the electron acceptor)-acquires a negative charge

Front 72

Define cation

Back 72

The atom that loses electrons (the electron donor) acquires a net positive charge.

Front 73

Most ionic bonds fall in the chemical category called ___

Back 73

salts

Front 74

Define covalent bond

Back 74

Electron sharing that produces molecules in which the shared electrons occupy a single orbital to both atoms

Front 75

The molecules formed in a covalent bond that are electrically balanced are called _____ molecules

Back 75

nonpolar

Front 76

Unequal electron sharing results in

Back 76

polar molecules

Front 77

Because water has two poles of a charge, it is a polar molecule, or _____

Back 77

dipole

Front 78

Hydrogen bonding is common to ____ such as water

Back 78

dipoles

Front 79

Hydrogen bonds are strong/weak bonds

Back 79

weak

Front 80

Hydrogen bonds can form ______ bonds, which bond a single large molecule together into a specific three dimensional shape

Back 80

intramolecular bonds

Front 81

In a chemical equation, the number and kinds of reacting substances are called _____

Back 81

reactants

Front 82

When atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecules, the process is a ______ or _____
reaction

Back 82

synthesis, combination (anabolic)

A + B = AB

Front 83

A _____ reaction occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms

Back 83

decomposition (catabolic)

Front 84

Exchange or ______ reactions involve both synthesis and decomposition

Back 84

displacement

AB + C -> AC + B and
AB + DC -> AD + CB

Front 85

Define oxidation-reduction reactions (redox)

Back 85

Redox reactions are decomposition reactions in that they are the basis for all reactions in which food fuels are catabolized for energy.

decomposition reaction, food is catabolized

Front 86

In a redox reaction, the reactant losing the electrons is referred to as the electron donor, and is said to be ____

Back 86

oxidized

Front 87

In a redox reaction, the reactant taking up the transferred electrons is referred to as the electron acceptor, and is said to become _____

Back 87

reduced

Front 88

Reactions that release energy are called _____

Back 88

exergonic reactions.
With few exceptions, catabolc and oxidative reactions are exergonic

Front 89

Reactions in which the product contains more energy than the original reactants are called _____

Back 89

endergonic reactions.
Anabolic reactions are typically endergonic reactions.

Front 90

Name the 4 factors that influence the rate of chemical reactions.

Back 90

temperature, concentration, particle size, and catalysts

Front 91

Chemical reactions are more likely to occur by raising both ____ and _____.

Back 91

temperature and concentration.

Front 92

_____ are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves becoming physically changed or part of the product

Back 92

catalysts.

Front 93

Biological catalysts are called _____

Back 93

enzymes.

Front 94

All chemicals in the body fall into two classes, ___ and _____

Back 94

organic, inorganic.

Front 95

All organic compounds are _____ bonded

Back 95

covalently.

Front 96

Water makes up between ___ and ___ % of the volumes of most living cells

Back 96

60-80%

Front 97

Water is often called the ____ solvent

Back 97

universal

Front 98

Water forms _____ layers around large charges molecules such as proteins, sheilding them from the effects of other charged substances in the vicinity and preventing them from settling out of solution

Back 98

hydration

Front 99

Cerebrospinal fluid and blood are examples of what type of mixture?

Back 99

colloids.

Front 100

Foods are digested to thier building blocks by adding a water molecule to each bond to be broken. Such decomposition reactions are called ______ _____.

Back 100

hydrolysis reactions ("water splitting")

Front 101

When large carbohydrate or protein molecules are synthesized from smaller molecules, a water molecule is removed for every bond formed, referred to as ___ __

Back 101

dehydration synthesis.

Front 102

A ___ is an ionic compound containting cations other than H and anions other than the hydroxyl ion (OH-)

Back 102

salt

Front 103

All ions are _____, subtances that conduct electrical current in solution.

Back 103

electrolytes.

Front 104

Groups of ions that bear an overall charge, such as sulfate, are called

Back 104

polyatomic ions.

Front 105

Define acid

Back 105

a substance that releases Hydrogen ions (H+) in detectable amounts

Front 106

Because acids release a hydrogen ion that is just a hydrogen nucleus, acids are also defined as _____

Back 106

proton donors.

Front 107

When acids dissolve in water, they release

Back 107

hydrogen protons and anions

Front 108

It is the concentration of which atomic molecule that determines the acidity of a solution?

Back 108

protons

Front 109

The molecular formula for an acid is recognized by the __ being written first.

Back 109

hydrogen (HCl).

Front 110

Bases are proton

Back 110

acceptors.

Front 111

Like acids, hydroxides dissociate in water, but in this case ___ and ___ are liberated

Back 111

hydroxl (OH-), cations.

Front 112

Like acids, hydroxides dissociate in water. However, what is liberated instead?

Back 112

hydroxl ions (OH-) and cations.

Front 113

The more hydrogen ions in a solution, the more ___ it is

Back 113

acidic

Front 114

The greater the concentration of hydroxyl ions the more ____ the solution is

Back 114

basic (alkaline)

Front 115

The relative concentration of hydrogen ions in various body fluids is measured in ___ units

Back 115

pH

Front 116

The pH scale was devised by whom?

Back 116

Soren Sorenson in 1909

Front 117

The PH scale runs from 0 to __

Back 117

14

Front 118

The ph scale is logarithmic, that is each succesive change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in ____ ____ concentration.

Back 118

hydrogen ion

Front 119

The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the Hydrogen ion concentration (H+) in moles per liter or ___

Back 119

-log[H+]

Front 120

at a pH of 7 (at which [H+] is 10 -7 power), the number of hydrogen ions ___ ___the number of hydroxyl ions (pH = pOH), and the solution is neutral.

Back 120

exactly equals

Front 121

A solution with a pH of 6 has ___ times as many hydrogen ions as a solution with a pH of 7

Back 121

10

Front 122

Solutions with a pH higher then 7 are _____

Back 122

alkaline

Front 123

Compute the hydrogen ions for a solution with a pH of 7 as composed to a solution with a pH of 12

Back 123

(1/10 X 1/10 X 1/10 X 1/10 X 1/10)=1/100,000 as many hydrogen ions.

Front 124

When acids and bases mix, they react with each other in _____ reactions to form ___ and ___

Back 124

displacement reactions, water and salt

Front 125

Normally, blood pH falls between what range

Back 125

7.35-7.45

Front 126

Undissociated acids do/do not affect the pH of a solution

Back 126

do not

Front 127

Name three compounds that contain carbon but are considered inorganic

Back 127

carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and carbides

Front 128

Carbon never gains or loses electrons, it only ___ them.

Back 128

shares

Front 129

Carbohydrates represent what percentage of cell mass?

Back 129

1-2%

Front 130

Hydrogen and oxygen atoms generally occur in what ratio in a carbohydrate?

Back 130

2:1, same as water

Front 131

In general, the larger the carbohydrate molecule, the more/less soluble it is in water

Back 131

less

Front 132

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen generally appear in what ratio in a carbohydrate?

Back 132

1:2:1 also written as (CH2O)n

Front 133

Monosaccharides are also known as ___ sugars

Back 133

simple

Front 134

Name two isomers of glucose

Back 134

galactose, fructose also starch and glycogen.

Front 135

The decomposition reaction that occurs when disaccharides are broken down into simple sugars is called what?

Back 135

hydrolysis (reverse of dehydration synthesis)

Front 136

Chainlike molecules made of many similar units are called _____

Back 136

polymers

Front 137

The storage carbohydrate found in plants is called

Back 137

starch

Front 138

The storage carbohydrate found in animals is called

Back 138

glycogen

Front 139

Triglycerides are also called what?

Back 139

Neutral Fats

Front 140

A triglyceride is made up of what two types of building blocks?

Back 140

fatty acids and glycerols

Front 141

Describe fat synthesis.

Back 141

Fat synthesis involves attaching 3 fatty acid chains to a single glycerol molecule by dehydration synthesis

3 fatty acid, 1 glycerol, dehydration synthesis

Front 142

Fatty acid chains with only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms are called ____

Back 142

saturated

Front 143

Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms are said to be ________

Back 143

unsaturated (mono and poly)

Front 144

Which type of fatty acids (saturated, unsaturated) are said to be more "heart healthy"?

Back 144

unsaturated

Front 145

___ ___ are oils that have been solidified by the addition of H atoms at the sites of double carbon bonds.

Back 145

trans fats

Front 146

Phospholipids contain _ fatty acid chains

Back 146

2

Front 147

Molecules that have both polar and non-polar regions are ________

Back 147

amphipathic

Front 148

Steroids are made of _ interlocking hydrocarbon rings

Back 148

4

Front 149

The single most important molecule in our steroid chemistry is _____

Back 149

cholesterol

Front 150

_____ are diverse lipids chiefly derived from a 20 carbon fatty acid (arachidonic acid) found in all cell membranes

Back 150

eicosanoids

(prostaglandins)

Front 151

Protein composes __-__% of cell mass

Back 151

10-30%

Front 152

All proteins consist of which 4 elements?

Back 152

Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and nitrogen. Many contain sulfur and phosphorus as well

Front 153

The building blocks of proteins are called ___ ___.

Back 153

amino acids

(there are 20 common types)

Front 154

All amino acids have two important functional groups. What are they?

Back 154

amine group (-NH2)
organic acid group (-COOH)

Front 155

All amino acids are identical except for a single group of atoms called their _ group.

Back 155

R

Front 156

Proteins are long chains of amino acids joined together by a ___ ___ reaction with the amine end of one amino acid linked to the next.

Back 156

dehydration synthesis

Front 157

The link between the amine end of a amino acid to the acid end of another amino acid is referred to as a ___ bond

Back 157

peptide

Front 158

Two united amino acids form a _____

Back 158

dipeptide.

Front 159

Name the four structure types of proteins.

Back 159

Primary, secondary, tertiary, qauternary
(ascending in complexity)

Front 160

In regards to protein structures, what are the two different types of secondary structures?

Back 160

alpha helix (slinky)
beta pleated sheet

Front 161

This type of protein is extended and strandlike.

Back 161

fibrous

Front 162

This type of protein is compact and spherical.

Back 162

globular a.k.a functional

Front 163

When a protein loses its shape due to temp. rise or pH drops, it is said to be ___

Back 163

denatured.

Front 164

Name 8 examples of fibrous protein

Back 164

Collagen, Keratin, Elastin, Spectrin, Dystrophine, Titin, Actin, Myosin

anagram-MAST DECK

Front 165

Name 5 functions of globular proteins

Back 165

catalysts, transport, regulation of pH, regulation of metabolism, body defense

Front 166

In globular proteins, __ __ are regions that fit and interact chemically with other molecules of complimentary shape and charge.

Back 166

Active Sites.

Front 167

Name three functions of chaperonins.

Back 167

-Prevent accidental, premature, or incorrect folding of polypeptide chains
-Aid in the desired folding and association process
-Promote breadown of damaged and denatured proteins.

Front 168

Name the first chaperonins discovered.

Back 168

heat shock proteins (hsp)

Front 169

What name replaced "heat shock protein".

Back 169

stress proteins

Front 170

____ are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts.

Back 170

enzymes

Front 171

Name two two parts of a holoenzyme.

Back 171

apoenzyme (protein portion),
cofactor (ion or organic molecule)

Front 172

Most cofactors are derived from ____.

Back 172

Vitamins (specifically B complex)

Front 173

A cofactor that is vitamin based is called a ______.

Back 173

coenzyme

Front 174

Hydrolases add what during hyrdolysis reactions?

Back 174

water

Front 175

Oxidases add what during an oxidation reaction?

Back 175

oxygen

Front 176

Define substrate.

Back 176

The substance that binds to an enzymes active site.

Front 177

Substances that fit into an enzyme's active site to block the substrate are called ___ ___.

Back 177

enzyme inhibitors.

Front 178

Name the three basic steps in the mechanism of enzyme action.

Back 178

1. Enzyme's site binds with substrate
2. The enzyme substrate complex undergoes internal arrangements that form the product.
3. The enzyme releases the product of the reaction.

Front 179

Most enzymes can catalyze how many reactions a minute?

Back 179

millions

Front 180

Nucleic acids are composed of what elements?

Back 180

oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

Front 181

Structural units of nucleic acids are called _____

Back 181

nucleotides

Front 182

What are the 3 components make up a nucleotide?

Back 182

a nitrogen containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.

Front 183

Name the 5 major varieties of nitrogen containing bases that contribute to nucleotide structure?

Back 183

adenine-A, guanine-G, cytosine-C, thymine-T, and uracil-U

Front 184

Name the nucleotide purines (two ring bases).

Back 184

adenine and guanine

Front 185

Name the nucleotide pyrimidines (single ring base)

Back 185

cytosine, thymine, and uracil

Front 186

The stepwise synthesis of a nucleotide involves attachment of a base to a ___ ___ to form a nucleotide.

Back 186

pentose sugar

Front 187

The nucleotide is formed when a ___ ___ is bonded to the sugar of the nucleoside.

Back 187

phosphate group

Front 188

RNA is located where in the cell?

Back 188

chiefly outside the cell membrane.

Front 189

What is RNA's primary role?

Back 189

To carry out orders for protein synthesis issued by DNA.

Front 190

Name the pentose surgar in DNA.

Back 190

deoxyribose

Front 191

In RNA, uracil replaces what nitrogen base?

Back 191

thymine

Front 192

Name three types of RNA

Back 192

messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA.

Front 193

Describe the structure of ATP

Back 193

ATP is an adenine containing RNA nucleotide with two additional phosphate groups

Front 194

Define acidosis.

Back 194

A condition of acidity or low PH (below 7.35) of the blood; high ion concentration

Front 195

Define alkalosis.

Back 195

A condition of basicity of high PH (above 7.45) in the blood; low hydrogen ion concentration.

Front 196

RNA is double/single stranded.

Back 196

single