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138 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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epiphysis
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- enlarged ends of bones
- inside spongy bone - thin layer of compact bone outside |
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diaphysis
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- shaft of bones
- thick wall of compact bones - no/little spongy bone - often hollow |
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medullary cavity
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- hollow area in middle of diaphysis
- contains yellow marrow (fat) |
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periosteum
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- covers bone
- made of dense irregular CT - carries blood vessels and is highly innervated |
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sharpey's fibers
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- attaches periosteum, ligaments, and tendons to bone
- composed of collagen fibers |
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nutrient foramen
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- holes in compact bone
- visible - allows blood vessels to reach medullary cavity and spongy bone |
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Volkman's canals
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- small "pink prick" holes that penetrate compact bone
- allow blood vessels to reach Haversian canal |
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Ossification
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- the laying down of mineral salts upon an organic matrx
- forms bones |
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intramembranosus ossification
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- tough fibrous membrane appears first
- occurs at the outside of bone - causes widening in all directions - bone on inside is reabsorbed - some flat bones formed this way |
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endochondral ossification
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- hyaline cartilage model appears first
- ground cartilage replaced by calcium salts - occurs at diaphysis - long bones formed this way - ossifies outward in all directions - |
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synarthrosis
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non-moving articulations
- contains a thin layer of fibrous joint between the two bones - skull sutures |
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ampiarthrosis
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- partly movable articulation
- connected by either cartilage or ligament |
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synchondrosis
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- cartilage connection
- connected by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage |
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syndesmosis
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- fibrous joint
- ligament connection in between the tibia and fibula |
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diarthrosis
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- synovial joints
- freely movable articulations - no direct union between the bone ends - |
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kinds of joints
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- synarthrosis: non- movable (fibrous)
- ampiarthrosis: partly movable (fibrous or cartilagenous) - synovial: freely movable (diarthrosis) |
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ligaments
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connect bone to bone
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fibrocartilage disc
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contained in some synovial joints for shock absorption or improving joint congruency
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tendons
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connect muscle to bone
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bursa
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- found around most joints
- sacs lined with synovial membrane and filled with synovial fluid - reduce friction between moving parts |
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tendon sheath
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- a bursa wrapped around a tendon
- secretes fluid onto the tendon |
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retinaculum
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- fibrous band that sits over tendons to prevent bowing
- changes direction of pull - at the ankle |
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synovial joint shapes
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- nonaxial/plane
- uniaxial - biaxial - triaxial |
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nonaxial/plane
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- type of synovial joint
- gliding motion - irregular joint shape |
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uniaxial joints
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- type of synovial joint
- motion in 1 direction - hinge joint - pivot joint |
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examples of hinge joints
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- elbow
- "humeral-ulnar" joint |
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examples of plane joints
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-shoulder
- AC joint - facet joint |
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examples of pivot joints
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- C1/C2 (axial-atlanto)
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biaxial joints
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- motion in 2 directions
- condyloid/ellipsoid - saddle |
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examples of condyloid joints
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- MCP joint
- wrist |
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examples of saddle joints
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- first metacarpal and trapezium
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triaxial joints
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- motion in all three planes
- ball and socket |
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examples of ball and socket joints
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- hip
- shoulder |
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what is stability of a joint determined by?
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- shape of joint
- support of ligament - suction in the joint cavity - surrounding muscles |
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types of muscle tissue
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- skeletal
- cardiac - smooth |
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skeletal muscle
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- striated
- voluntary movement |
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cardiac muscle
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- striated
- involuntary movement - fatigue resistant - fibers are branched and reconnecting - contraction of one fiber will spread to the others |
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smooth muscle
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- not striated
- involuntary movement - slow sluggish contractions - controlled by autonomic nervous system - internal organs - digestive system |
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Skeletal Muscle Structure/Shape:
Fusiform of Longitudinal |
- parallel muscle fibers running the length of the muscle
- long and slender - relatively weak - common in the extremities - sartorius |
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Skeletal Muscle Structure/Shape:
Convergent / Triangular |
- fibers are parallel but converge to a narrow attachment
- trapezius |
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Skeletal Muscle Structure/Shape:
Pennate |
- muscle fibers are arranged diagonally to the direction of pull of the tendon
- more fibers than the other kinds but range of motion is reduced - unipennate: muscle to one side (semimembranosus) - bipennate: muscle converges to both sides of the tendon (rectus femoris) - mutlipennate: muscle fibers radiate out from a central tendon (deltoid) |
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epimysium
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- losse CT
- surrounds entire muscle - continuous with the perimysium |
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fasicles
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- bundles of fasicles in the belly of muscles
- groups of muscle cells/fibers - surrounded by perimysium |
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muscle fiber/cell
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- muscle tissue
- surrounded by endomysium and sarcolemma - many cells fused together to form one cell with many nuclei - each one contains protein filaments called myofibrils |
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sarcolemma
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cell membrane or cell wall
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syncytium
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many cells fused together to form one cell with many nuclei
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myofibrils
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- protein filaments that make up muscle cells/fibers
- made of sarcomeres |
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sarcomeres
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- basic unit of the muscle cell
- defined by Z lines - contains thick and thin protein filaments (myosin and actin) |
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myosin
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- thick protein filaments
- found in sarcomeres - area containing myosin is called A band |
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actin
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- thin protein filaments
- found in sarcomeres - area containing only actin is called I band |
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A band
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area in sarcomere containing myosin
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I band
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area in sarcomere containing only actin
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H zone
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area located in the middle of the A band of the sarcomere containing only myosin filaments
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neuromuscular junction or myoneural junction
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a nerve fiber ending at a muscle fiber
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how movement occurs in skeletal muscle
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- nerve impulse causes release of a chemical neurotransmittor
- calcium is released into the muscle - calcium causes contraction of sarcomeres |
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sliding filament theory
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- actin filaments slide along myosin filaments causing Z bands to get shorter
- filaments do not themselves shorten |
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innervation
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-every muscle cell stimulated by at least one motor neuron
- one motor neuron will have branches that will activate between 3 and several hundred muscle cells |
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motor unit
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one motor neuron plus all the muscle cells it activates
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all or none principle
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each impulse causes complete contraction of of every muscle cell that was stimulated
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slow twitch muscle fibers (type I)
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- appear more red
- depend primarily on oxidative metabolism - slow contractions - fatigue resistant - found most in postural muscles - SO for slow oxidative |
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fast twitch muscle fibers
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- depend on glycolytic metabolism
- faster contraction - fatigue quicker - increases in fiber are with training - 3 variations of this type |
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Fast twitch type IIa
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- FOG: Fast Oxidative Glycolytic
- percentage of this fiber type can be significantly increased with training |
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Fast Twitch type IIb
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- FG: Fast glycolytic
- fatigues the fastest - first fiber type on, first off - with training, often converts to types IIa |
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fast twitch type IIc
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- undifferentiated fiber type
- may be fibers that are regenerating following muscle damage |
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afferent or sensory neurons
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carries impulses to the brain from the body
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efferent or motor neurons
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carries impulses from the brain to the body
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central nervous system
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- the brain and spinal cord
- where decisions are made and interpreted |
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peripheral nervous system
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- nerves outside the CNS
- connect the CNS to the body |
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somatic nervous system
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all neurons tied into voluntary or conscious activity
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autonomic nervous system
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- controls involuntary or subconscious activity
- controls cardiac and smooth muscle - 2 divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic |
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nerve cell (neuron) structure
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- dendrites
- cell body - axon - myelin sheath / schwann cells - terminal feet - nodes on ranvier |
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dendrites
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- receives stimuli form the environment and other neurons
- where impulse is initiated - usually many dendrites per neuron - can be as long as an axon |
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cell body (neuron)
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- controls neuron activity
- location of the nucleus - does not have myelin - part of gray matter - found only in the gray matter of the CNS - found in the ganglia on PNS |
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axon
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- carries the electrical impulse from the cell body to the terminal feet
- can be up to 3 feet long - only one axon per neuron |
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myelin sheath / Schwann cells
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- composed of lipids ( fats )
- white - myelin sheath is part of the cell membrane of Schwann cells - Schwann cells are found along the axon in the PNS - in the CNS, glial cells create the myelin - nodes of Ranvier - acts as an insulator - allows impulse to travel faster |
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nodes of Ranvier
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- gaps in the myelin sheath
- create unmyelinated regions of axon - impulse occurs here only |
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white matter
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myelinated axon
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terminal feet
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- where impulse is transferred to another neuron or other cells
- many terminal feet per axon - neurons can grow more terminal feet |
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gray matter
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- the neuron cell bodies and supportive tissue
- only found in CNS or ganglia of PNS |
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white matter
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- the conducting portion of the neuron (axons)
- composed mostly of the myelinated nerve fibers |
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ganglia
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- a collection of neuron cell bodies
- found outside the CNS - considered gray matter |
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synapse
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- the junction where the neuron and the target tissue connect
- located at the end of the terminal feet - a gap that creates a chemical communication to the target tissue |
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neuromuscular junction
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- the synapse to a skeletal muscle fiber
- works by diffusion of the neirotransmittor, Acetylcholine |
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Muscle Spindles
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- important sensory nerve ending
- lie parallel to regular muscle fibers - anchored to the connective tissues of the muscle - sensitive to changes in muscle length and to the speed of length change - stimulated the most with high velocity length changes - cause the muscle to contract in response to a quick stretch ( known as a "stretch reflex") |
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Golgi Tendon Organs
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- important sensory nerve ending
- located at musculotendinous junction - sensitive to change in muscle tension/force - stimulated by excess muscle contraction/force - can cause the muscle to relax via a reflex to prevent damage |
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structure of a nerve
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- a bundle of axons held together by CT
- has its own blood vessels - nerves only located in the PNS - outside surrounded by epineurium - divided into fasicles that are surrounded by perineurium - cell bodies of the PNS neurons are found in the gray matter of the CNS or in the ganglia outside of the CNS |
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epineurium
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- a tough connective tissue
- surrounds the outside of nerves - surrounds the neuron and its axon - contains capillaries which provide nutrition to the neuron |
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perineurium
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- surrounds the fasicles which make up nerves
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spinal nerves
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- 33 pairs
- come off the spinal cord and emerge from the CNS between each pair of vertebrae - nerves are part of the PNS - comprised of both sensory and motor neurons |
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spinal cord
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- extends from the foramen magnum in the skull to second lumbar vertebra
- does not completely fill the spinal cavity - conus medullaris: end of spinal cord - 9 pairs of spinal nerves come off the conus medullaris to form the cauda equina |
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cauda equina
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- formed by the 9 pairs of spinal nerves that come off the end of the spinal cord
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meninges
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the connective tissue membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord
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dura mater
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the outer sheath of CT that surrounds the spinal cord and brain
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arachnoid
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- "spider web" like CT
- attached to the underside of the dura mater |
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pia mater
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- inside CT that is tightly bound to the brain and spinal cord
- contains lots of blood vessels |
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subarachnoid space
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- located between the arachnoid and pia mater
- filled with cerebral spinal fluid |
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Cerebral spinal fluid
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- CSF
- fights infections - cushions the spinal cord and brain |
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nerve roots
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- dorsal and ventral nerve roots
- 2 bundles of nerve fibers that project from each side of the spinal cord |
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dorsal nerve root
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carries sensory information into spinal cord
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dorsal root ganglion
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- small region of gray matter in the dorsal nerve root
- comprised of cell bodies of the sensory neurons |
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ventral nerve root
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carries motor information out of the spinal cord
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ventral horn
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part of the spinal cord where the cell bodies of motor neurons are found
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spinal nerve
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dorsal and ventral nerve roots joined together to form a single mixed nerve called a spinal nerve
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spinal ganglion
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- location of neuron cell bodies
- found on the dorsal root of the spinal cord - also called the Dorsal Root Ganglion |
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Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord
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- neuron cell bodies without myelin
- shaped like an H in the spinal cord - creates the dorsal (posterior) and ventral (anterior) horns |
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White Matter of the Spinal Cord
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- consists of the myelinated axons
- divided into 3 columns on each side - columns divided into nerve tracks - nerve tracks relay impulses - no decisions are made here |
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sympathetic ganglion
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- a chain of ganglia
- just outside the spinal cord - formed of cell bodies of the sympathetic nervous system |
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plexus
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- weblike network of fused, separated and refused spinal nerves
- single nerve cells emerge distally from each plexus - lumbar, sacral, brachial, and cervical plexuses |
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brainstem
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- medulla oblongata
- pons - midbrain (mesencephalon) |
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medulla oblongata
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- begins just above the foramen magnum
- center of reflex regulation: breathing, heart action - contains reticular formation where brain is awakened to consciousness |
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pons
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bridge for neurons from cerebral cortex to cerebellum
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cerebellum
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- coordinating center: balance, posture
- initiates subconscious motor activity - coordinates movement |
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hindbrain
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brain stem + cerebellum
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diencephalon
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thalmus and hypothalmus
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thalmus
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sensory impulse relay station
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hypothalmus
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- controls activities involved with keeping body in a steady state: hunger, thirst, sleep
- principle relay system between nervous system and endocrine system (glands) - connected to the pituitary gland: controls endocrine glans via secretions |
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cerebrum
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- divided into 2 hemispheres via the sagittal sulcus
- each hemisphere divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal |
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left hemisphere
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controls speech and hearing in about 96% of pop
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right hemisphere
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controls cognitive thought in 96% of pop
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frontal lobe
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controls speech
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parietal lobe
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controls touch and pressure
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occipital lobe
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controls vision
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temporal lobe
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controls smell and hearing
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corpus callosum
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- composed of white matter
- connects the 2 hemispheres |
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cerebral cortex
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- surface of cerebrum
- composed of gray matter - where conscious thought occurs - motor & sensory activities, reasoning, memory - very convoluted = more surface area = more synapses -gyrus - sulcus - sagittal sulcus - central sulcus - lateral sulcus |
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gyrus
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the fold or elevated area on the cerebral cortex
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sulcus
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the groove between 2 gyri
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sagittal sulcus
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divides the right and left hemispheres
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central sulcus
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- divides the somato-sensory area on the parietal lobe from the somato-motor area on the frontal lobe
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pre-central gyrus
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controls motor activities
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post-central gyrus
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controls sensation
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lateral sulcus
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division between the temporal lobe and the lobes superior to the temporal lobe
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limbic system (within the cerebrum)
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- controls involuntary aspects of behavior
- stimulation arouses different emotions: pleasure, rage, etc |
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ventricles
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- large fluid-filled spaces within the brain
- 4 in the brain - creates the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which cushions the brain and spinal cord |
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autonomic nervous system
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- responsible for involuntary body functions: heartbeat, digestion, etc
- helps maintain homeostasis - composed of both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves |
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sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
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- mobilizes body for emergencies
- "flight of flight" reaction - increases heartrate, increase in adrenaline, etc |
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parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
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-acts as antagonist to sympathetic division
- slows activities down |
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reflex
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an involuntary predictable response to a stimulus
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