Anatomy And Physiology Ii

Front 1

gas transfer system

Back 1

gas going from one state of matter to another

Front 2

breathing

Back 2

air is brought into the lungs by inhalation-> gas goes to alveoli -> gas enters capillaries

Front 3

external respiration

Back 3

-respiratory diffusion
-exchange from the alveoli and the capillaries

Front 4

bult transport

Back 4

movement along a pressure gradient

Front 5

internal respiration

Back 5

-cellular diffusion
-diffuse gas out of the capillary network and into the cells of the body

Front 6

Dalton's Law

Back 6

-multiple gases are present in the atmosphere and this law looks at the composition of them all
-total pressure=the sum of individual pressures of the gases

Front 7

Henry's Law

Back 7

-gases dissolve into liquid in proportion to their partial pressure
-until equilibrium is reached

Front 8

high solubility

Back 8

dissolved completely and cannot see any particles

Front 9

low solubility

Back 9

does not dissolve completely

Front 10

______ temperatures dissolve faster

Back 10

colder

Front 11

most soluble gas

Back 11

-carbon dioxide
-20x more than oxygen

Front 12

alveolar gases

Back 12

the composition of gas in the lungs

Front 13

comparision of gas in atmoshpere to gas in alveoli

Back 13

-more CO2 and H2O in alveoli
more H2O because more condensation from conductive pathway
-less O2 and N2 in the alveoli
because O2 does not stay in the alveoli it travels to the tissues and always leaves alvolis)

Front 14

conductive pathway

Back 14

conducts air from mouth to the alveoli

Front 15

why is gas composition different

Back 15

-we cannot empty lungs/ alveoli
-there is always air from the previous breath

Front 16

if there is more water vapor produced

Back 16

humid air in conductive pathway

Front 17

humans can alter gas composition by taking deeper faster breaths

Back 17

-this can flush out old air and bring in new air
-the ANS will increase breathing rate during exercise

Front 18

gas pressure gradients

Back 18

show the changes in partial pressure of O2 and Co2 in each system

Front 19

atmosphere has ____ mmHg of pO2 --> absorbed into ____ mmHG of pO2 in alveoli

Back 19

-160
-104

Front 20

atmosphere has ____ mmHg pCO2 --> ____ mmHg pCo2 in alveoli

Back 20

-0.3
-40

Front 21

how does oxygen travel?

Back 21

lungs --> heart --> body

Front 22

how does carbon dioxide travel ?

Back 22

body --> heart --> lungs

Front 23

Pressure Gradients

Back 23

oxygen: in deoxygenated blood ( to lungs )

Front 24

why is surface area important

Back 24

because a larger surface area contact between vasculature and alveoli --> transfer between 2 areas more easily through diffusion

Front 25

emphysema

Back 25

-hard breathing from heavy smoking causes erosion of the wall of alveoli. Causing a loss in surface area.
-gas diffusion is not great --> this means that O2 is brought to the body

Front 26

tumors

Back 26

cause a thickening of alveoli wall--> less O2 enter because it has a harder time passing through

Front 27

bronchitis

Back 27

build up of mucous causes the rate of diffusion to go down, which means that not enough O2 is getting the body tissue

Front 28

Ventilation perfusion coupling

Back 28

-perfusion: bringing blood to the area
-in the lungs, not all alveoli are big/round and full of O2
-each alveoli is surrounded by capillaries

Front 29

gas transport in blood

Back 29

-want as much O2 to blood as possile
-dissolving in the plasma
(5L plasma in the body--> every L can carry <3 mLs of o2)
-use hemoglobin
(carry up to 200 ml?l o2)
(hemoglobin can also carries co2)

Front 30

hemoglobin structure

Back 30

-co2 is carried on alpha and beta globin
-98% of o2 is picked up in the RBC's
-2% in the plamsa
-4 heme groups to bind to

Front 31

Hb-O2 affinity

Back 31

this means that o2 is attracted to hemoglobin and wants to bind to it

Front 32

decreasing Hb-O2 affinity

Back 32

making it more difficult for oxygen to bind to hemoglobin

Front 33

how can you decrease Hb-O2 affinty

Back 33

-increase pCO2
(decrease in % saturation)
-elevate body temp
(less o2 binds to it)
-blood pH decrease
(lower number-->more acidic--> harder for o2 to bind to it)
-2,3 diphosphateglycerate
(RBC's do not have a lot of mitochondria and make ATP aerobically)

Front 34

Ohypoxia

Back 34

when there is an inadequate amount of O2 going to tissues

Front 35

Anemia

Back 35

-causes hypoxia
-someone has low number of RBC's --> they have low hemocrit--> cannot carry enough o2

Front 36

ischemic

Back 36

-causes hypoxia
-if there is a blockage in the circulatory system, it decreases flow--> therefore o2 is not transported

Front 37

histoxic

Back 37

enough o2 is transported to the cells, but the chemical prevents the enzymes in the electron transport from workin --> cannot use o2 to make ATP

Front 38

hypoxemic

Back 38

-too much co2 in blood and cannot get rid of it --> therefore there is not enouhg o2
-this can cause co2 poisoning
-a reduced pO2 is arterials
(not enough o2 in body)

Front 39

CO2 transport (3 ways)

Back 39

-dissolved in plasma--> 10%
-attached to hemoglobin--> 20-30%
-converting co2 into bicarbonate ions--> 60-70%

Front 40

co2 transport - dissolved in plasma

Back 40

goes from gas to liquid

Front 41

co2 transport- attached to hemoglobin

Back 41

-binds to Hb when o2 comes off to go to the tissue
-co2 attaches and goes casculature
-occurs in RBC's

Front 42

co2 transport- convering into bicarbonate ions

Back 42

co2+h2o ----> h2co3

Front 43

bicarbonate ions

Back 43

-more acid --> pH down
- no enzyme to speed this up
-slowly combine with h2o to become more acidic and disassociates to the H+ and hco3
-pH goes down when co2 is in the plasma

Front 44

co2 transport into the lungs

Back 44

-from the blood to the alveolis
-bicarbonate moves in, chloride moves out into the plasma--> reverse chloride shift

Front 45

respiration

Back 45

we need o2 to survive, and it needs to be done aerobically--> that way we use little glucose to make ATP

Front 46

organization of lungs

Back 46

-right lung- 3 lobes
-left lungs- 2 lobes
-branches from: tertiary-->primary bronchi -->secondary bronchi-->bronchioles-->alveolar ducts--> alveoli

Front 47

2 pathways of the respiratory path

Back 47

1. conductive pathway: conducts air into the lungs (moves up trachea, primary-secondary and tertiary bronchi)
2. interact with the capillaries in exchange (made up of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli)

Front 48

function of conduction pathway

Back 48

-warm air going into lungs due to heat exchange
-air is cleaned through the passage way
(mucosa)
-air becomes humid
(dry air mixes with water vapor)
-phonation- the larynx is part of the conduction zone
-regulation of air flow by constriction/dilating blood vessels surrounding it

Front 49

function of respiratory zone

Back 49

-surface area contact between vasculature and alveoli
-max o2 in and co2 out
-as exchange through diffusion

Front 50

2 cells of respiratory zone- 2

Back 50

1. type I cells: lined with epithelium
-flat cells, want there to be narrow distance between the alveoli and vasculature
-function=gas exchange
2. type II cells: production of surfactant- allows to break hydrogen bonds so they don't have yo form -->alveoli wont collapse-->maintain shape and can exchange gas

Front 51

gas exchange

Back 51

-oxygen-from alveoli to vasculature, carbon dioxide- from pulmonary capillaries to alveoli
-difference is partial pressure
gas must pass through 3 membranes
-epithelium
-fused basal layer
-capillary endothelium

Front 52

diffusion distance

Back 52

squamous cells--> more sufficent gas exchange--- the shorter the distance the better ( less distance to travel)

Front 53

lung ventilation

Back 53

lungs are a closed compartment- are completly enclosed (by head, neck, diaphragm, sternum, ribs, intercostal muscle)

Front 54

partial pleura

Back 54

-lines the inside of the rib cage
-connective tissue

Front 55

visceral pleura

Back 55

the think layer wrapped around the lungs

Front 56

pleural cavity

Back 56

-the space between the partial pleural and visceral pleural
-not filled with air- filled with pleural fluid
-makes both layers BOTH expand at the same time

Front 57

Ventilation steps

Back 57

-inhale
-exchang of air between atmosphere and alveoli
-exchange of o2 and co2 between alveoli and lung capillaries (from gas to liquid)
-bulk flow - blood moves from the heart tissue and capillaries

Front 58

inhale

Back 58

-caused by change in partial pressure
causes a lowered pressure in the alveoli

Front 59

exchange of air between atmosphere and alveoli

Back 59

-ventilation: exchange of air between atmosphere and alveoli
-bulk flow: alveoli are ventilated due to changes in partial pressure

Front 60

ventilation

Back 60

-about 760 mmHg at sea level
-in order to breath in the pressure gradients moce from area of high to low pressure
-for experiation: alveolar pressure must exceed 760 mmHg

Front 61

diaphragm contractions

Back 61

-contracts: moves donw, external intercostal muscles contract (rib cage expand)--> lung volume increases due to pleural cavity surface tension

Front 62

when the lungs are bigger they are under ____ pressure

Back 62

lower

Front 63

breath out when pressure inside the alveoli is _____ than atmospheric pressure

Back 63

greater

Front 64

bulk flow calculation

Back 64

- K *delta p
-K: constant
-delta p: change in pressure

Front 65

interpleural pressure

Back 65

-alveolar pressure
-means the pressure within the lungs
-fluid between 2 pleural layers

Front 66

lungs have the tendency to _______.

Back 66

-recoil
-made of elastic connective tissue
-rubber band like

Front 67

air flow

Back 67

deep breath --> change in pressure increase--> higher flow rate

Front 68

flow rate is directly proportionate to _______.

Back 68

delta p

Front 69

how is flow rate calculate

Back 69

change in pressure/ resistance of airways

Front 70

change in pressure

Back 70

determines air flow (altered by breathing fast or deep and constriction of inspiratory and expiratory muscles)

Front 71

calculate resistance

Back 71

1/radius^4
-inversely proportionate
-resistances slows flow rate
- if the pathway is dilated --> the radius increases

Front 72

lung compliance

Back 72

they change in colume when air passes/ enters alveoli

Front 73

compliance calculated

Back 73

-delta V/delta p
-athletes have the ability to bring more air in on one breath- because lungs are more compliant

Front 74

how is lung volume measured

Back 74

using a spirometer- the bell moves up and down due to inhalation- creates wave graph

Front 75

tidal volume

Back 75

amount of air in and out of the lungs at rest

Front 76

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

Back 76

extra air breathed in

Front 77

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Back 77

the extra air you breath out

Front 78

residual volume

Back 78

-air left in the lungs after you exhale
-you cannot get all of the air out of your lungs
-about 1000 mL

Front 79

inspiratory capacity

Back 79

-the total amount of air inspired normally and forcefully
-IRV + TV

Front 80

functional residual capicity

Back 80

-amount of air expelled and left over in the lungs
-IRV + TV

Front 81

Vital capacity

Back 81

IRV + TV + ERV

Front 82

total lung capacity

Back 82

IRV + TV + ERV +RV

Front 83

dead space

Back 83

non useable air because
-not in the alveoli
-air still left in bronchi
-high co2 and low o2

Front 84

Alveolar ventilation

Back 84

amount of air in lungs that is useful
-500 mL of tidal volume
-350 - new useful air
-150 - dead space

Front 85

how is ARV calculated

Back 85

air breathed in * breaths

Front 86

neural control

Back 86

control breathing with the meduall oblongata
- dorsal respiratory group:
-inverts with the diaphragm
-incolved in respiration
-ventral respiratory group
-inverted with external intercostals

Front 87

Hering-Breuer reflec

Back 87

-when there is an increase in pCO2, blood pH goes down
-co2 determine/ controls respiratory rate
-30%= peripheral response
-70% CNS

Front 88

Gases in the environment

Back 88

co2-70%
-high co2 --> pH goes down

Front 89

hyperpnea

Back 89

an excessive amount of co2--> increase in depth and rate of breathing

Front 90

functions of the kidney

Back 90

-regulates h2o, electrolytes, nonelectroyctes (if you drink too much you pee)
-regulates plasma volume---> therefore blood pressure
-regulates concentration of H+ ions in the plasma (acid-base balance)
-eliminated metabolic waste(toxins are filtered through kidney
-hormone secretion (renin --> regulation of BP)

Front 91

Calyces

Back 91

ares of a kidney

Front 92

Renal pelvis

Back 92

where the calyces come together to form a larger area

Front 93

urter

Back 93

renal pelvis forms tube, ureter, that brings fluid to the bladder

Front 94

renal cortex

Back 94

area surrounding the renal medulla

Front 95

renal medulla

Back 95

inner medulla

Front 96

nephrone

Back 96

-structure that filters plasma
-functional unity
-millions per kidney

Front 97

glomerulus

Back 97

-tufts of capillaries
-twist and turn among themselves
-filtrate goes into proximal tubule
(located in cortex)--> loop of Henley (located in medulla)--> distal tubule--> emptiesinto collecting ducts
-filtrate from nephron ALL go to this area (where it is attached)

Front 98

where do 2 nephron connect?

Back 98

common collecting duct

Front 99

cortical nephron

Back 99

most of the nephron is located in the cortex- it has a short loop of henley

Front 100

Juztamedullary nephron

Back 100

half of the nephron lies within the medulla, half in cortex
- has a long loop of henely

Front 101

red

Back 101

artery

Front 102

blue

Back 102

vein

Front 103

afferent arterial

Back 103

brings blood to the glomerulus

Front 104

efferent arterial

Back 104

-brings blood away from the glomerulus
-turns into the vasa recta: capillaries that surround the loop of Henley

Front 105

peritubule capillaries

Back 105

surround/ circle the outside of kidney tubules

Front 106

renal processes- 3

Back 106

1. filtration
2. reabsorption
3. secretion

Front 107

filtration

Back 107

out of glomerulus and into nephron
-forms filtrate
-only h2o and solutes filtered out
-albumin (protein) cannot be filtered out-too large and net negative charge
-blood cells are not filtered- too large

Front 108

how do you know if something can be filtered or not

Back 108

1. size
2. charge
3. size again

Front 109

glomerulus filtration

Back 109

1tr barrier: endothelium (fenstration in wall of capillary where blood circulates
-has to be small enough to fit in
2nd barrier: charge-negatve charge
-like charges repel and will stay in blood
3rd barried: size barrier- smaller than first
-podocytes: provide structural integrity- space between filtration slit

Front 110

renal process

Back 110

after is has been filtered, want to bring it back into the blood through absorption (the rest is lost in urine)

Front 111

reabsorbtion

Back 111

bringing fluid from the nephron into the blood
-99% h2o reabsorbed
-water reabsorbtion: ALWAYS passive diffusion (no energy)
-sodium reabsorbtion: MOSTLY active (going against pressure gradient)

Front 112

_____ % of sodium is reabsorbed early in the proximal tubule

Back 112

65

Front 113

reabsorbtion at cell level

Back 113

nephrone to blood
-sodium moves passivly across apcal membrance and actively into plasma (basal membrane)

Front 114

sodium can be transported 2 ways

Back 114

1. co-transported with glucose of protein
-crosses apical membrane by facilitated diffusion (no energy)
2. sodium potassium pump
-sodium pumps to blood

Front 115

_____ follows sodium

Back 115

water

Front 116

secretion

Back 116

from blood supply to the nephron
-water and solutes are secreted
-sodium potassium pump
-sodium= reabsorbed
-potassium= secreted
-hi K+ in cell --> low in nephron

Front 117

urine formation

Back 117

fluid going to the renal artery
-one day: 1640 L
-180 L fluid filtered
-1.5 L peed out
-other 99% is reabsorbed

Front 118

blood supply

Back 118

there is a blood pressure drop in glomerli
-want continuous laminar flow to allow filtration

Front 119

rate of glomerilar flitration supply is determined by

Back 119

-filtration surface area (more glomerlular capillaries
-filtration membrane permeability (more perm. then fater filtration) (h2o very permeable and RBS and WBC are not)
-net filtration pressure (higher filtration pressure causes the rate of filtration to go up)

Front 120

glomerular filtration rate:

Back 120

the total amount of filtrate former in a nephron every minute

Front 121

renal clearance

Back 121

out of vascular and out of animal (getting it out of plasma)

Front 122

GFR is regulated by:

Back 122

-renal auto regulation: kidney does it itself
-nervous system: ANS
-Renin-angiotensin system: JG apparatus

Front 123

renin

Back 123

hormone that is released bt the kidned --> ANG2 in blood is regulated glomerluar filtration rate

Front 124

JG apparatus made up of:

Back 124

afferent arteriols, efferent arteriols, macula densa, and the JG cells

Front 125

It regulates the amount that is filtrated by

Back 125

-single layer of squamous epithelial cells: bowemans capsule
(surrounds the entire glomerulus)
-renal corpuscle: contains glomerulus and bowemans capsule- entire capillary networl
-macula densa
green cells primarily located on the afferent arteriol: JG apparatus

Front 126

macula densa

Back 126

-where the distal collecting tubule touches/ comes in contact with arterioles
-cells are columnar

Front 127

regulation of GFR

Back 127

low blood pressure --> filter less

Front 128

GSR is regulated by ___________.

Back 128

renal auto regulation
-self contained

Front 129

countercurrent multiplication

Back 129

want concentrated urine --> save h2o
-if you get rid of too much your blood pressure will drop
-290 mOms is normal
-above 300= hypertonic
- below 300= hypotonic
-the proximal convoluted tubule is 300 mOms inside-->NaCl is reabsorbed by vascularue by active transport
-simple diffusion of urea and h2o

Front 130

loop of Henley is approximately _______ mOms .
why?

Back 130

-1200
-because 15% h2o is leaving and being reabsorbed by diffusion or osmosis-->further into the medulla, the concentration increases until you get to 12000
-comes out because the concentration in the nephron is less than in the interstition.
-salt DOES NOT leave

Front 131

In the ascending loop og Henley ________ leaves

Back 131

salt: actively pumped out-->higher concentration in the interstition
(NOT h2o)
-what happens in the descending relays on ascending loop

Front 132

total reabsobtion

Back 132

99% is reabsorbed (h2o)
1% urine

Front 133

reabsorbtion of NaCl

Back 133

because the concentration in the interstition goes up, and water is re absorbed in the descending loop

Front 134

Urea

Back 134

build up of concentration in the plasma-freely filters in the glomerulus

Front 135

most of the nephron is ______ permeable to urea

Back 135

NOT
-only the bottom of the collecting duct is

Front 136

concentration gradient goes up to _____ mOms because of NaCl and urea being filtered and reabsorbed

Back 136

1200

Front 137

urea is _____ in the descending loop of Henley

Back 137

secreted

Front 138

concentraion of urine is determined by

Back 138

-the collecting duct -->h2o going out, being reabsorbed
-ADH hormone: allows production of concentrated urine by: cells of the duct are permeable to water--> reabsorb eater

Front 139

hormone related to urine concentration

Back 139

Arginine vasopressin
-produces by the posterior pituitary gland and is signaled to release ADH to blood and targets the nephron (distal collecting duct)

Front 140

vasa recta

Back 140

draws h2o out of collecting duct, need high concentration in the medulla
-if blood is brought quickly to medulla some salt will enter the blood-->will run out of NaCl in the interstition--> cannot reabsorbe water
-this is why blood supply enters the vasa recta sloly

Front 141

urine concentration is usually

Back 141

290 mOms
+/- 5 mOms

Front 142

urine dilution

Back 142

caused by drinking more water channels--> h2o is impermeable/ cannot cross the cell --> water stays

Front 143

why does urine dilution happen

Back 143

-collecting duct-->h2o is not reabsorbed-->do not form water channels-->h2o is impermeable-->water stays
-arteial natiuretic peptide

Front 144

atrial natriutetic peptide (ANP):

Back 144

senses that blood pressure is too high-->ANP is released by arterial cells and targets the distal tubule and the collecting duct-->decreases sodium absorption-->h2o stays in the nephron and is released in urine

Front 145

diuretics

Back 145

-alcohol: affects the pituitary gland so it does not release ADH-->diluted urine is created
-caffeine: vasodilates GFR is increase--> more filtered, pee way more
-drugs: inhibit sodium and water absorption-->dehydration (pee more)

Front 146

Micturition

Back 146

-peeing
-can hold it sometimes
-urinary bladder muscle: detrusor muscle

Front 147

sphincters

Back 147

internal: smooth muscle (involuntary)
external: skeletal (voluntary)

Front 148

fluid balance

Back 148

most of the body is made up of water (60% of body weight)
-inside the cell: intracellular fluid (40%)
-plasma

Front 149

how much fluid do we take in a day?

Back 149

1.5 L
-drinking: 60%
-eating: 30%
-metabolism: 10% (byproduct of ATP production)