Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
135 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What are the functions of the respiratory system?
|
1. Gas exchange
2. Communication 3. Olfaction 4. Acid base balance 5. Blood pressure regulation 6. Blood & lymph flow 7. Expulsion of abdominal contents |
|
|
How is the respiratory involved in blood pressure regulation?
|
The lungs help carry out a step in the synthesis of angiotensin II (a vasoconstrictor), which helps regulate blood pressure
|
|
|
What is the Valsalva maneuver?
|
Taking a deep breath & holding it while contracting the abdominal muscles helps to expel abdominal contents during urination, defecation, & childbirth
|
|
|
What are the principal organs of the respiratory system?
|
1. Nose
2. Pharynx 3. Larynx 4. Trachea 5. Bronchi 6. Lungs |
|
|
What happens during inspiration?
|
Inspiration = inhalation: incoming air stops in the alveoli & exchanges gases with the bloodstream across the alveolar wall
|
|
|
What are the two main functional divisions of the respiratory system?
|
1. Conducting division
2. Respiratory division |
|
|
What is the conducting division of the respiratory system?
|
Consists of those passages that serve only for airflow, from the nostrils through the bronchioles
|
|
|
What is the respiratory division of the respiratory system?
|
Consists of the alveoli & other distal gas-exchange regions
|
|
|
What are the two main anatomical divisions of the respiratory system?
|
1. Upper respiratory tract
2. Lower respiratory tract |
|
|
What organs are part of the upper respiratory tract?
|
Upper respiratory tract = organs in head & neck:
1. Nose 2. Pharynx 3. Larynx |
|
|
What organs are part of the lower respiratory tract?
|
Lower respiratory tract = organs in thorax:
1. Trachea 2. Bronchi 3. Lungs |
|
|
Where does air enter the nose anteriorly?
|
Nostrils (nares)
|
|
|
What is the path of air through the nose?
|
Anteriorly, air enters through nostrils (nares), then passes through the nasal cavity to posterior openings called choconae
|
|
|
What are the posterior openings of the nose called?
|
Choconae (posterior nasal apertures)
|
|
|
What are the two divisions of the nose?
|
1. Olfactory area (superior 1/3)
2. Respiratory area (inferior 2/3) |
|
|
What are the functions of the nose?
|
1. Respiration
2. Olfaction 3. Filtration of dust 4. Humidification & warming of inspired air 5. Reception of paranasal & nasolacrimal secretions |
|
|
What is the beginning of the nasal cavity?
|
The vestibule inside the nostril
|
|
|
What kind of cells line the inside of the nasal cavity?
|
The nasal cavity is lined with stratified squamous epithelium & has guard hairs called vibrissae that block insects & larger dust particles
|
|
|
What are the two halves of the nasal cavity called? What structure separates them?
|
Nasal fossae are divided by the nasal septum
|
|
|
What are the three parts of the nasal septum?
|
a. Superiorly: the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
b. Inferiorly: the vomer c. Anteriorly: septal/nasal cartilage (hyaline cartilage) |
|
|
What two bones form the roof of the nasal cavity?
|
1. Ethmoid bone
2. Sphenoid bone |
|
|
What forms the floor of the nasal cavity?
|
The hard palate
|
|
|
What structures extend along/project from the lateral wall of the nasal cavity?
|
Concha or turbinate:
1. Superior concha 2. Middle concha 3. Inferior concha |
|
|
What are the air passages between the nasal conchae?
|
Meatuses:
1. Superior meatus 2. Middle meatus 3. Inferior meatus |
|
|
What is the function of the nasal meatuses?
|
Create a turbulence that bounces the air off the mucous membranes and cleanses, warms, & humidifies it
|
|
|
What empty into each meatus?
|
Air sinuses
|
|
|
What structures on the superior nasal concha & roof of the nasal cavity contain sensory cells that detect odors?
|
Olfactory mucosa
|
|
|
Ciliated pseudostratified respiratory mucosa lines most of the nasal cavity & extends deep into the lungs; the mucosa has what two types of cells?
|
1. Goblet cells- secrete mucus
2. Ciliated epithelial cells- sweep the mucus to the pharynx so that it may be swallowed; inhaled particles stick to the mucus & are swept away from the respiratory tract by the ciliated cells |
|
|
How do the erectile tissues of the inferior nasal concha shift airflow from one fossa to the other?
|
They swell & shrink; this allows the less-ventilated fossa a chance to periodically recover from drying
|
|
|
What is another name for the pharynx?
|
Pharynx = the throat
|
|
|
Where is the pharynx located?
|
Extends from the chonae to the larynx
|
|
|
What are the three regions of the pharynx?
|
1. Nasopharynx
2. Oropharynx 3. Laryngopharynx |
|
|
What is the function of the nasopharynx?
|
The nasopharynx houses the auditory tubes from the middle ear & houses the pharyngeal tonsil
|
|
|
What is the function of the oropharynx?
|
The orophyarnx & laryngopharynx pass both air & food and are lined with stratified squamous epithelium
|
|
|
What is the function of the laryngopharynx?
|
The orophyarnx & laryngopharynx pass both air & food and are lined with stratified squamous epithelium
|
|
|
ONLY air passes through which region of the pharynx?
|
Nasopharynx
|
|
|
Where is the pharyngeal tonsil located?
|
In the nasopharynx
|
|
|
What structure protects the respiratory pathway from food & other substances traveling down the pharynx?
|
The epiglottis, which covers over the larynx during swallowing & directs food backward into the esophagus
|
|
|
What is another name for the larynx?
|
Larynx = the voice box
|
|
|
Where is the larynx located?
|
Begins superiorly at the glottis & ends 4 cm lower at the trachea
|
|
|
What is the main function of the larynx?
|
Functions:
1. To keep food & drink out of the airway (main function) 2. Has evolved the additional role of sound production (phonation) |
|
|
The larynx is supported by what structure?
|
The larynx is supported by nine cartilages bound to each other by intrinsic ligaments
|
|
|
What are the nine cartilages that support the larynx?
|
a. Solitary median cartilages:
1. Epiglottic 2. Thyroid 3. Cricoid b. Paired cartilages: 1. Arytenoid 2. Corniculate 3. Cuneiform |
|
|
What attaches the larynx to the hyoid bone (above) & the trachea (below)?
|
Two extrinsic ligaments
|
|
|
Which cartilage covers the anterior & lateral aspects of the larynx?
|
Thyroid cartilage = largest laryngeal cartilage
|
|
|
Which cartilage connects the larynx to the trachea?
|
Cricoid cartilage
|
|
|
What is the function of the extrinsic muscles of the larynx?
|
The extrinsic muscles function in swallowing
|
|
|
What is the function of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx?
|
The intrinsic muscles operate the vocal cords during speech
|
|
|
What are the folds located on the interior wall of the larynx that stretch anterior to posterior?
|
Superior & inferior vestibular folds
|
|
|
What is the function of the superior vestibular folds?
|
Close the glottis during swallowing
|
|
|
What is the function of the inferior vestibular folds?
|
Produce sound when air passes through them (they are the vocal cords)
|
|
|
What is the superior opening of the larynx?
|
Glottis
|
|
|
What is the name of the flap that guards the superior opening of the larynx?
|
Epiglottis
|
|
|
What is the only abductor of the true vocal cords?
|
Posterior cricoarytenois, which attaches from the back of the cricoid cartilage to the arytenoid cartilage
|
|
|
What extends from the trachea to the pulmonary alveoli?
|
The lower respiratory tract
|
|
|
What is another name for the trachea?
|
Trachea = the windpipe
|
|
|
Where is the trachea located?
|
Anterior to the esophagus
|
|
|
What is the function of the tracheal rings?
|
The tracheal rings keep the trachea from collapsing
|
|
|
What are the tracheal rings made of?
|
Hyaline cartilage
|
|
|
What is the purpose of the smooth muscle at the back of the trachea?
|
The smooth trachealis muscle is flexible to allow expansion for the passage of food
|
|
|
What kind of cells are found in the trachea?
|
The trachea is lined with pseudo stratified columnar epithelium that contains:
1. Ciliated cells 2. Goblet cells |
|
|
What is the importance of the ciliated cells & goblet cells in the trachea?
|
Mucus secreted by the goblet cells traps inhaled particles that are then swept toward the pharynx by the ciliated cells along the "mucociliar escalator"
|
|
|
What happens at the inferior end of the trachea?
|
The inferior end of the trachea branches to the right & left main bronchi
|
|
|
What is the name of the branch point/fork that directs the airflow from the trachea to the right & left bronchi?
|
Carina
|
|
|
What is the name of the superior aspect of the lung? The inferior?
|
Superior apex
Inferior base |
|
|
Which lung surface lies against the rib cage?
|
Costal surface
|
|
|
Which lung surface faces the heart?
|
Mediastinal surface
|
|
|
Through what structure does the mediastinal surface of the lung receive the main bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, nerves, & lymphatics?
|
Hilium
|
|
|
How many fissures & lobes does each lung have?
|
a. Right lung = shorter, broader
- 2 fissures - 3 lobes (superior, middle, & inferior) w/ 3 lobar bronchi b. Left = taller, narrower - 1 fissure - 2 lobes (superior & inferior) w/ 2 lobar bronchi |
|
|
Which lung exhibits a cardiac impression where the heart presses against it?
|
Left lung
|
|
|
What is the name given to the branching system of air passages found within each lung?
|
Bronchial tree
|
|
|
Outline the system of air passages known as the bronchial tree.
|
The bronchial tree extends from:
1. Primary (main) bronchi 2. Secondary (lobar) bronchi 3. Tertiary (segmental) bronchi 4. Bronchioles 5. Terminal bronchioles 6. Respiratory bronchioles |
|
|
What structure is supplied by each lobar bronchus?
|
Each lobar bronchus supplies one lobe of the lung
|
|
|
What structure is supplied by each segmental bronchus?
|
Each segmental bronchus supplies one bronchopulmonary segment
|
|
|
How many secondary (lobar) bronchi are in the left lung? The right lung?
|
Left lung = 2 lobar bronchi
Right lung = 3 lobar bronchi |
|
|
How many tertiary (segmental) bronchi are in the left lung? The right lung?
|
Left lung = 8 segmental bronchi
Right lung = 10 segmental bronchi |
|
|
What structure marks the end of the conducting division?
|
Terminal bronchioles = the end of the conducting division; all branches beyond this have alveoli & belong to the respiratory division
|
|
|
What feature distinguishes the respiratory division from the conducting division?
|
All branches in the respiratory division have alveoli
|
|
|
What are continuations of the airway that lack supportive cartilage & are one mm or less in diameter?
|
Bronchioles
|
|
|
What is the name given to the portion of the lung ventilated by one bronchiole?
|
Pulmonary lobule
|
|
|
How does the epithelium of the bronchioles change from proximal to distal?
|
Epithelium of the bronchioles from proximal to distal:
a. Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium (or ciliated cuboidal epithelium) w/ smooth muscle in larger, more proximal bronchioles b. As you progress distally, it gets thinner & grades into simple columnar epithelium c. Finally becomes simple cuboidal epithelium |
|
|
What features are absent from bronchioles? What purpose does this serve?
|
Bronchioles lack mucus glands & goblet cells, but are ciliated throughout- this ensures that mucus draining distally from those gland cells can still be captured by the beating cilia & cleared from the airway
|
|
|
Each bronchiole branches into how many terminal bronchioles?
|
50-80
|
|
|
Each terminal bronchiole gives off two two or more -.
|
Respiratory bronchioles = beginning of the respiratory division & have alveoli budding from their walls
|
|
|
Each respiratory bronchiole divides into 2-10 -.
|
Alveolar ducts = elongated, thin-walled passages with alveoli
|
|
|
What type of epithelium is found in the alveolar ducts & smaller divisions?
|
Nonciliated simple squamous epithelia
|
|
|
The alveolar ducts end in -, grape like clusters of alveoli arranged around a central space called the -.
|
a. Alveolar sacs
b. Atrium |
|
|
Why do bronchioles exert the greatest control over airflow?
|
1. They are the most numerous components of the conducting division
2. With their well-developed smooth muscle & lack of restrictive cartilage, they can change the relative diameter more than the larger air passages can (bronchoconstriction & bronchodilation) |
|
|
The lungs receive blood from what two types of arteries?
|
a. Pulmonary arteries = pulmonary blood supply
b. Bronchial arteries = systemic blood supply |
|
|
Which arteries provide the lungs' pulmonary blood supply?
|
Pulmonary arteries
|
|
|
Which arteries provide the lungs' systemic blood supply?
|
Bronchial arteries
|
|
|
What is the function of the capillaries given off by the pulmonary arteries?
|
Pulmonary arteries lead to capillaries that surround the alveoli & serve for gas exchange
|
|
|
What is the function of the capillaries given off by the bronchial arteries?
|
Bronchial arteries lead to capillaries that supply the metabolic needs of the larger lung tissues like the bronchi & bronchioles
|
|
|
What is the function of the 150 million alveoli in each lung?
|
Alveoli = small, thin-walled sacs that provide 70m2 of surface area for gas exchange & are surrounded by a basket of blood capillaries
|
|
|
An alveolus is composed of which two types of cells?
|
1. Squamous (type I) alveolar cells
2. Great (type II) alveolar cells |
|
|
Which type of alveolar cell covers the greatest surface area?
|
Squamous (type I) alveolar cells cover 95% of surface area
|
|
|
Which type of alveolar cell is most numerous?
|
Great (type II) alveolar cells outnumber squamous (type I) alveolar cells
|
|
|
What is the function of type I alveolar cells?
|
Type I alveolar cells = gas exchange area
|
|
|
What is the function of type II alveolar cells?
|
Type II alveolar cells:
a. Secrete pulmonary surfactant, which prevents the alveoli from collapsing during expiration b. Repair alveolar epithelium |
|
|
What is the function of pulmonary surfactant?
|
Secreted by type II alveolar cells & prevents the alveoli from collapsing during expiration
|
|
|
What is the last line of defense against inhaled debris?
|
Alveolar macrophages, which are contained within an alveolus
|
|
|
Across what surface does gas exchange actually occur?
|
Gases are exchanged through the thin respiratory membrane
|
|
|
What two types of cells make up the respiratory membrane?
|
Respiratory membrane =
1. Capillary endothelial cells 2. Squamous alveolar cells 3. Their shared basement membrane |
|
|
What is name given to the two-layered serous membrane that enfolds each lung?
|
Pleura
|
|
|
What is the layer of the pleura that is touches the lung surface?
|
Visceral pleura
|
|
|
What is the layer of the pleura that adheres to the mediastinum, inner surface of the rib cage, & superior surface of the diaphragm?
|
Parietal pleura
|
|
|
What is formed at the hilium where the visceral pleura turns back on itself?
|
Parietal pleura
|
|
|
What structure connects the parietal pleura to the diaphragm?
|
Pulmonary ligament
|
|
|
What are the functions of the pleurae & pleural fluid?
|
1. To reduce friction when the lungs expand & contract
2. To create a pressure gradient that facilitates the movement of air 3. Along with the pericardium & mediastinum, the pleurae compartmentalize thoracic organs (helps to prevent the spread of infection) |
|
|
How do the pleurae create a pressure gradient that facilitates the movement of air?
|
1. During inhalation, the rib cage pulls the parietal pleura out
2. The visceral pleura (on the surface of the lungs) clings to the parietal pleura 3. The lungs expand as they are pulled outward |
|
|
What muscle is the prime mover of pulmonary ventilation?
|
Diaphragm
|
|
|
What two groups of muscles are involved in airflow?
|
1. Diaphragm (2/3 of airflow)
2. External & internal intercostal muscles (1/3) |
|
|
What are accessory muscles of respiration?
|
Accessory muscles of respiration = neck, thoracic, & abdominal muscles other than the diaphragm & intercostals that contribute to deep breathing
|
|
|
Describe the process of quiet inspiration.
|
Quiet inspiration:
1. Contraction of the diaphragm 2. Elevation of the ribs by the external intercostals 3. Enlargement of the thoracic cavity in the vertical, transverse, & anteroposterior dimensions 4. Inflow of air |
|
|
Describe the process of quiet expiration.
|
Quiet expiration:
1. Inspiratory muscles relax 2. Thoracic structures recoil because of their own elasticity 3. Expiration of air |
|
|
What muscles aid forced (deep) inspiration?
|
Forced (deep) inspiration is aided by muscles that elevate the upper ribs (sternocleidomastoids, scaliness, pectoralis major & minor, serratus anterior, & part of the internal intercostals)
|
|
|
What muscles aid forced (deep) expiration?
|
Forced (deep) expiration is aided by muscles that:
a. Depress the ribs & sternum (internal intercostals, rectus abdominus) b. Compress the abdominal cavity (latissimus dorsi, transverse abdominal, oblique abdominals) |
|
|
The nuclei that set the rhythm of unconscious breathing are found in what two brainstem structures?
|
1. Medulla oblongata
2. Pons |
|
|
What are the two respiratory nuclei in the medulla?
|
Respiratory nuclei in the medulla:
1. Ventral respiratory group (VRG)- neurons set the basic cycle of inspiration & expiration = primary pacemaker of respiratory rhythm 2. Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) neurons modify output from the ventral group to adjust breathing rhythm = integrating center |
|
|
What is the respiratory group found in the pons?
|
Respiratory nuclei in the pons = pontine respiratory group
|
|
|
What is the function of the ventral respiratory group of nuclei in the medulla?
|
Primary pacemaker of respiratory rhythm; sets the basic cycle of inspiration & expiration
|
|
|
What is the function of the dorsal respiratory group of nuclei in the medulla?
|
Integrating center: receives input from the pontine respiratory group, chemoreceptors, & stretch receptors in the lungs and modifies output from the ventral respiratory group to adjust breathing rhythm (acts on the VRG to modulate breathing rhythm)
|
|
|
What is the function of the pontine respiratory group of nuclei in the pons?
|
Receives input from higher brain centers and issues output to the VRG & DRG to modify breathing rate/rhythm to adapt to sleep, exercise, vocalization, & emotional responses
|
|
|
What are the two types of receptors that signal the respiratory centers?
|
1. Chemoreceptors- monitor pH and O2 & CO2 concentrations in the blood & CSF
2. Stretch receptors- monitor inflation of the lungs |
|
|
What are the two types of chemoreceptors that signal the respiratory centers?
|
Chemoreceptors:
1. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem 2. Peripheral chemoreceptors in the aorta & cartoid arteries: a. Aortic bodies b. Cartoid bodies |
|
|
What happens when stretch receptors in the lungs detect excessive inflation?
|
Trigger inhibition of inspiration
|
|
|
What nerve passes sensory signals from the respiratory mucosa to the inspiratory center?
|
The vagus nerve
|
|
|
What happens when irritants are aspirated to the larynx?
|
Signals are stimulated, & the vagus reflex results in coughing or sneezing
|
|
|
How do higher brain centers such as the limbic system, hypothalamus, & cerebral cortex influence the respiratory centers?
|
a. We exert conscious control over breathing when we hold our breath
b. Strong emotions may cause hyperventilation, gasping, crying, or laughing |
|
|
When does the respiratory system begin development?
|
3.5 weeks: the respiratory system begins development as a pulmonary groove that grows from the floor of the pharynx
|
|
|
The pulmonary groove grows into a tube that forks into two lung buds, then branches extensively to form the -.
|
Bronchial trees
|
|
|
What structures have formed by week 9?
|
By week 9, the pericardium & diaphragm isolate the lungs & pleural cavities from the heart & abdominal cavity
|
|
|
When does the fetus begin respiratory movements (fetal breathing) that move amniotic fluid into & out of the respiratory tract?
|
11 weeks
|
|
|
Why are the neonate's first breaths so strenuous?
|
Because of the need to inflate the alveoli with air
|
|
|
What two structures gradually close to direct blood to the lungs?
|
1. Foramen ovale
2. Ductus arteriosus |
