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175 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
objective phenomena
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those that are directly observable
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subjective phenomena
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those that can be known only be respondents, themselves
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response
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=attitude+other constructs+method bias+random error
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random error
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results due to temporary aspects of the person or measurement situation and which affects the measurement in irregular ways (mood, state of leath, fatigue, situation in which measure is taken, ambiguity of question wording
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cognitive steps in answering questions
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1) understand question
2) search memory for information 3) integrate information into summary judgement 4) map judgment onto response alternatives |
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difference between weak and strong satisficing (aiming to achieve only an adequate level of decision making)
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weak satisficing: people go through steps really quickly
strong satisficing: people skip steps 2 & 3 all together (in cognitive steps mentioned earlier) |
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causes of satisficing
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-respondent motivation
-respondent ability -task difficulty |
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results of satisficing
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-select first reasonable response
-agree with assertions -"don't know" |
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dichotomous nominal level questions
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-simplest type of nominal measure
-classify into 2 exhaustive, mutually exclusive groups -most common form: yes/no questions -forcing people to answer one way or another -easy for respondent to answer, simple to edit cod and analyze (good for skip patterns) |
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multiple choice questions (nominal)
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-present 3 or more exclusive and exhaustive categories of response
-there should be an appropriate response for everyone respondent and no overlap! -use when need is to categorize into smaller, more focused categories than are permitted by dichotomous questions |
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advantages of MC questions
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flexible format, appropriate wide range of situations, easy to code; edit; tabulate; balance
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checklists (nominal)
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-combines series of related dichotomous questions into single question; less time consuming and less tedious
-"which of the following words apply?" -must explicitly define selection criteria -order choices to reduce bias |
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response order effects
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• Recommendations: multiple versions or randomizing the order
• Caution: reasonable response options (influence the number of times people believe they partake in a behavior or what it's associated with!) • If you want a straightforward number - ask people for a number don't give them options |
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rating scale (type of interval level questions)
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"how believable or unbelievable was the commercial you just saw?"
considerations: number of scale options, scale balance, frame of reference -recommendation: uni-polar scale |
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frame of reference
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-non-comparative scales ask for rating without an explicit frame of reference "Think about the commercial you just saw. How believable or unbelievable would you say the commercial was?"
-comparative scales provide a frame of reference "Think about the commercial you just saw. How believable or unbelievable would you say the commercial was compared to other beer advertising" |
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constant sum questions
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the more points you give to something, the more important it is. You can give as many or as few points you wish to each reason
o Considerations: manageable number of options, reasonable number of points, easily divisible number of points |
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why are people more likely to agree with assertions?
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-norms of conduct (be polite and agreeable)
-status differential: defer to higher status -satisficing: hypothesis confirmation bias |
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what is the most crucial step to avoid problems with questions?
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Pre-testing to understand cognitive processes and determine potential problems...give people your questionnaire and have people think aloud as they respond to it...easy to see miss understandings/confusion
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questionnaire components
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-intro
-selection/screenings -substantive (main body) -background info -post-interview questions -transitions! |
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Rules of Conversation
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1.Maxim of Quality
a.Try to make your contribution one that is true. Specifically, do not say what you believe to be false, and do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence 2.The Maxim of Quantity a.Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange, and do not make your contribution more informative than is required 3.The Maxim of Relevance a.Make your contribution relevant 4.The Maxim of Manner a.Be perspicuous, and specifically avoid obscurity, avoid ambiguity, be brief, and be orderly |
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poorly written transitions
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-potential to bias response
-too long; too detailed. increases difficulty level of the questionnaire -too demanding; damages rapport |
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well-written transitions
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-lends conversational tone; helps to maintain rapport
-alerts respondent to intro of new topic -alerts respondent to more detailed questions within a topic -provides a reason for collection of sensitive or personal information |
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Objective Phenomena
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those that are directly (how many hours of sleep you get) observable
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Subjective Phenomena
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those that can be known only by respondents, themselves
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Types of measures
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Attitudes, Beliefs, Emotions, and Behavioral Intentions
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Attitudes
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Likes and Dislikes
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Beliefs
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Liking an object to an attribute
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Emotions
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happiness, frustration, pride (joy of new clothing)
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Behavioral Intentions
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Plans to behave in certain ways
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Random Error
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Due to temporary aspects of the person or measurement situation and what affects the measurement in irregular ways
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Sources of Random Error
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Mood, state of health, fatigue, situation in which the measure is taken, ambiguity of question
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Cognitive Steps to Answering Questions
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Understand- the question
Search- Memory for information Integrate- Information into summary judgement Map- Judgment onto response alternatives |
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Satisficing
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a heuristic that satisfies the minimum requirements, when ability or task is difficult, respondent motivation low, just agree with assertions
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Types of questions
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Nominal
Ordinal Interval Ratio |
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Nominal
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whenever the goal is the classification of the measured characteristic or attribute; assigns each level of a characteristic or attribute to a distinct category (advertising, marketing, click-throughs, email) must be mutually exclusive, collectively exhaustive, and have internal category equivalence
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Ordinal
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arranges characteristics or attributes according to their magnitude in an ordered relationship along some explicit dimension; numbers have mathematical meaning; relative standing; represent place in an ordered array
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Interval
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everything that ordinal has and distance and magnitude between any two adjacent numeric points on the scale is assumed to be equivalent ; relative ranking and distance; deeper and draw more inferences
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Ratio
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all the power of the last 3 but also make comparisons among quantities, equal distances between points and meaningful zero point, constant sum scale
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Exclusive events
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Answer can only fit in one category
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Exhaustive events
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Must be category with every imaginable answer
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Response Order Effects
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occurs when the distribution of responses to a closed-ended survey question is influenced by the order in which the response options are offered to respondents.
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Primary effect
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occur when response options are more likely to be chosen when presented at the beginning of a list of response options than when presented at the end.
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Recency effect
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occur when response options are more likely to be chosen when presented at the end of a list of response options than when presented at the beginning of the list.
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Frequency estimates
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how often an answer is chosen
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agree-type responses
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Example question would be like "to what extent do you agree with this statement..."
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item-specific responses
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Example question would be like "how important is this issue to you..."
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Common types of problems when making questionnaire
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double-barreled
double negatives mismatch between response options and questions non-exclusive leading, loaded conversational norms |
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Solving problems when making questionnaires
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Simple language
Words with only 1 meaning Ask about one thing at a time Specific details Appropriate time frames Provide cues to aid memory Pre-testing to understand cognitive processes and determining potential problems Minimize cognitive burden Avoid cues for satisficing (agree-disagree) |
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Questionnaire design disguised
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makes purpose explicit
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Questionnaire components
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Intro, Screener, Main Body, Background Information/Post-interview questions
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Questionnaire design undisguised
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provides general overview but not everything
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Intro
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· explicit or implicit reference
· rationale and goals · explicit request for participation · task isn't burdensome · need for truthful answers · confidentiality · real, legit research |
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Screener
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Question at the beginning to admit all individuals who possess all the target characteristics and eliminates those that do not
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Main Body
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· simple, non-threatening, interesting, easy to answer questions first
· group questions on same topic together · within a topic move from general to specific · difficult and sensitive at end · don't bias end questions from beginning · address important topics first |
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Rules of Conversation
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Maxim of quality, quantity, relevance, manner
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Maxim of quality
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try to make your contribution one that is true. Don't say things that you don't have evidence for
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Maxim of quantity
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make contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange, and do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
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Maxim of relevance
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Make your contributions relevant and on topic
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Maxim of manner
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be perspicuous, and specifically avoid obscurity, avoid ambiguity, be brief, and be orderly
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Experimental research
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determine causality (effect of changes in one area on other areas)
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Descriptive research
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Describe specific point in time
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Independent variable
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"Cause"
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Dependent variable
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"Effect"
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Internal Validity
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A Broader View, Allows or eliminates alternative explanations of the results
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External Validity
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Affects the extent to which the results can legitimately be generalized
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Surveys
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respondents are asked to recall and report on behaviors
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Experiments
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observe behaviors, observe beyond description to describe causlity
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Quasi Experimental Design
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Attempt to uncover a causal relationship (do so poorly) because fail to eliminate threats to internal validity
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1. One group post test only
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One shot case study, "let's at least do something" design, Single group of individuals and exposes them to the treatment/experimental manipulation then measures the DV's (as part of posttest)
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2. One group pretest to posttest
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"Before and after without Control", Pre-measure is taken before manipulation of the IV, Often used when testing: product pricing, packaging and advertising response, Assessed by comparing levels in dependant measure (post treatment) to levels in the pretreatment measure
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3. Two group protest with control
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Attempt to address the problems with the prior designs, Cause and effect conclusions may not be correct
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Explicit Measures
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assess stored evaluative feelings and information about an object
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Implicit Measures
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assess evaluative tendencies, but do NOT require intentional recollection of stored evaluative info
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Types of explicit measures
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Graphic ratings, itemized ratings, likert scales, semantic differential
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Types of implicit measures
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Subliminal messaging, disguised self reports, projective techniques, priming, implicit association test,
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Steps in experimentation
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• Identify what you need to learn
• Take relevant actions • Observe effects and consequences • Determine causality |
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Categories of responding
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Feelings - goodwill, positive affect toward object
Thoughts - favorable beliefs about objects Behavior - recommending to others, purchasing, word of mouth |
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Functions of attitudes
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Instrumental, Knowledge, Value expressive, Ego-defensive
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Functions of attitudes - Knowledge
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Remember that our attitudes don't just change
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Functions of attitudes - Value-expressive
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Attitudes help tell people who you are
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Functions of attitudes - Ego-defensive
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Ideas can protect us from unflattering truths, or resent, or fear
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differences between descriptive and experimental research
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experimental moves beyond description to determine causality is the effect of changes in one area on one or more other areas
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limitations of survey research
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Surveys become less reliable for explaining behaviors when:
-questions require recall -individuals ask for introspection in areas of behavior not normally thought about -individuals must use memory to attribute cause/effect -complex, multiple or interrelated influences on behavior |
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major components of the classical experiment
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-independent and dependent variables
-pre-testing/post-testing -experimental and control groups |
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Dependent variable
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refers to the status of the "effect" (how the pizza crust turned out) RESULT
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independent variable
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referes to the presumed "cause" (how much water you add into the pizza crust)
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pre-test
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the measurements of DV among participants
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post-testing
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the measurement of a DV among participants after they have been exposed to an IV
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experimental group
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group of subjects whom an experimental stimulus is administered (measure dependent variable->administer experimental stimulus->remeasure dependent variable
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control group
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a group of subjects to whom no experimental stimulus is administered and who should resemble the experimental group in all other respects (measure dependent variable -> remeasure dependent variable)
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Steps in Experimentation
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-identify what you need to learn
-take relevant action -observe effects and consequences -determine causality |
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what defines a true experiment
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-controlled arrangement and manipulation of the conditions
-random assignment of treatments to the sampling units (helps us generalize the broader populations) |
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why is it important to randomize?
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protect against unsuspected sources of bias and attempt equalize groups
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requirements for causality
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-events must take place in proper order
-events must show an explicit relationship -alternative explanations must be reduced or eliminated -relationships must show strength of association |
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what are the 3 imperatives for Establishing Casual Relationships?
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-co-variation
-temporal precedence -internal validity |
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internal validity
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refers to our ability to attribute the observed effect to the independent variables, not other variables
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threats to internal validity
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history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, selection, morality (see more in depth below)
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History threat to internal validity
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events or influences beyond those intentionally manipulated by the researcher, which have potential to effect the experimental outcome
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maturation threat to internal validity
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people are always changing, which may affect the dynamics of the experiment
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testing threat to internal validity
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a pre-test can influence the way people respond ton the post-test or influence the way they respond to the treatment
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instrumentation threat to internal validity
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the measures that you can use to affect the results (not due to the treatment but to the instruments you are using)
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selection threat to internal validity
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whether or not you can randomly assign participants to treatment groups
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morality threat to internal validity
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when people drop out of an experiment
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external validity
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refers to the extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized, or extended, to other situations, populations, times
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pre-measurement error
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whenever an interview given before start of experiment has direct effect on respondent's attitudes, actions or behaviors during experiment
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interaction error
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whenever an interview given before start of experiment affects respondent's sensitivity or responsiveness to independent variable
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researcher bias error
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occurs when actions of the experimenter bias has an effect on the outcome of the experiment; can be intentional or unintentional
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double blind experiment
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Neither the subjects or the experimenters know which is the experimental and which is the control group
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quasi-experimental design
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untrue experiments (one shot case study, one-group pre-test post-test design, static-group comparison) morality and selection are always threats to quasi-experimental design
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types of true experimental designs
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-post-test only with control
-pre-test to post-test with control -Solomon 4-group design |
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factorial experiment
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effects of more than one IV on a DV
-possible main effect for each IV -allows for manipulation of two or more independent variables at the same time |
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interaction effect
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the effect of one IV on the DV depends on the level of the other IV
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Focus Group Pros
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interactive
stimulating spontaneous lower cost |
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Focus Group Cons
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single respondent may dominate
potential for bias group pressures group data not individual |
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Focus Group Uses
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product idea generation
product positioning creative exploration |
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Online Focus Groups
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Synchronous
Asynchronous Hybrid |
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Synchronous
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all participants online at the same time
closest to traditional focus group |
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Asynchronous
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participants dont need to be online at the same time
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Hybrid
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starts asynchronous and ends synchronous
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Goal of Qualitative Analysis
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reduce large amount of data into a set of well defined patterns and themes
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Before Research
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review problem and informational needs
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Examine Data
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become more familiar with data
be open minded understand reasons underlying attitudes review with a critical ear and eye |
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Theme Identification, Analysis and Revision Process
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Theme development
Code Data Examining Relevant Data Theme Revision Relating Individual Themes to Form Metathemes Evaluating analysis |
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Metathemses
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interrelationships of the individual themes
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Human observation
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researcher observes behaviors
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Human Observations situations
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observation is more insightful than descriptions
attitudes are hard to verbalize survey measures may not predict behaviors behaviors are the best source of insight |
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Observing Consumer Generated Media
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coverage
depth content sentiment |
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Modes of Human Observation
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situation
observer obtrusiveness observer participation data recording |
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Situation
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natural vs. artificial
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Observer Obtrusiveness
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open vs. disguised
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Observer Participation
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active vs. passive
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Data Recording
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structured vs. unstructured
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Automated Observation
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data collected by a machine
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Biometric Research
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measure an individuals voluntary/involuntary responses
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Neuromarketing
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consumers response to marketing stimuli
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FMRI
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specific brain areas
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EEG
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measures and record brains electrical activity
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Methods of Collecting Survey Info
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personal interviews
telephone interviews mail surveys online surveys hybrid surveys |
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Response Rate
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Valid sample that participate in the research by completing the survey
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Non-response Rate
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subtracting the response rate from 100%
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Measurement
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the way unobservable concepts are linked to observable events
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The Measurement Process
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Identify and define the concept of interest
Specify an observable event Evaluate and revise observable event |
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Concept definition
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central or core idea
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Observable Events
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Nominal
Ordinal Interval Ration |
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Nominal
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classification of measured characteristics
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Ordinal
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arranges attributes
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Interval
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distance between two adjacent points
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Ratio
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make comparisons among quantities
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Reliability
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extent a measure provides the same results
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Validity
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what researcher thinks its measuring
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Operational definition
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explanation that gives meaning to a concept by specifying activities necessary to measure it
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Open-ended Questions
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answer in your own words
measure attitudes, beliefs, perceptions eliminate potential bias avoid assumptions |
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Closed-ended Questions
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responses available to choose from
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Nominal Level Questions
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Dichotomous
Multiple Choice Checklist |
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Dichotomous
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classify individuals into mutually exclusive groups
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Undisguised
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makes the purpose of research clear
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Disguised
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provides general overview but not explicit information
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Questionnaire Components
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Introduction
Selection/Screening Main Body Classification |
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Screening
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distinguishes target from non-target
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Rules of Conversation
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quality
quantity relevance manner |
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Goal of Experimentation
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determine causality
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Causality
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effect of changes in one area on one or more areas
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Independent Variable
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variable that the experiment manipulates
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Dependent Variable
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what the researcher is interested in explaining
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Characteristics of Experiments
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identify what you need to learn
take action observe the effects determine causality |
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Experimental Group
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receives some treatment
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Control Group
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doesn't receive treatment
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Internal Validity
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extent that one can eliminate alternative explanations for the observed experimental results
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External Validity
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extent results can be generalized or extended to other situation, populations, times
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Threats to internal validity
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problems associated with...
an initial data collection the sample study context researcher behavior |
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Quasi-Experimental Designs
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One shot case study
One group pre-test and post-test design Static-group comparison |
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True Experiment
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controlled arrangement and manipulation of the conditions
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Three imperatives for establishing causal relationships
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co-variation
temporal precedence internal validity |
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Co-variation
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Events must show an explicit relationship
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Temporal Precedence
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Cause must precede the effect
Events must take place in proper order |