3-13 Evolution And Physiology Of Language (Part 1)

Front 1

Objective

Identify five ways in which the language use of Kanzi and Malika has exceeded that of other chimpanzees used in language studies.

Back 1

In the mid-1980s, researchers tried to teach a female bonobo named Matata to press symbols that lit when touched; each symbol represented a word. Although Matata made little progress, her infant son Kanzi learned just by watching her. By age 5½, he understood about 150 English words and could respond to such unfamiliar spoken commands as “throw your ball in the river” and “go to the refrigerator and get out a tomato.” Since then, Kanzi has demonstrated language comprehension comparable to that of a 2-2½-year-old child.

Both Kanzi and his younger sister Malika have demonstrated unique language skills that other chimps have lacked, including:

1. They understand more words than they can produce.
2. They use symbols to name and describe objects even when they are not requesting them.
3. They request items that they do not see, such as “bubbles” (I want to play with the bubble-blower”).
4. They occasionally use symbols to describe past events. Kanzi once pressed the symbols “Matata bite” to explain the cut that he had received on his hand an hour earlier.
5. They frequently make original, creative requests, such as asking one person to chase another while they watch.

Front 2

Objective

Give three possible reasons for the development of these impressive skills in Kanzi and Malika.

Back 2

1. Perhaps bonobos have more language potential than other chimpanzees
2. Kanzi and Malika began language training while young, unlike the chimpanzees in most other studies.
3. Perhaps learning by observation and imitation promotes better understanding than the formal training methods used in previous studies.

Front 3

Objective

Describe the language skills demonstrated by Alex, the gray parrot.

Back 3

Parrots are, of course, famous for imitating sounds. Irene Pepperberg was the first to argue that parrots can use sounds meaningfully, with the help of Alex, the gray parrot. She kept Alex in a stimulating environment and taught him to say words in conjunction with specific objects. First, she and the other trainers would say a word many times and then offer rewards if Alex approximated the same sound. Alex gradually learned to give spoken answers to spoken questions. He was shown a tray of 12 small objects and then asked such questions as “What color is the key?” or “Which object is gray?” In one test, he correctly answered 39 of 48 questions.

Front 4

Objective

Cite evidence for the existence of a language acquisition device.

Back 4

See study guide.

Front 5

Objective

Cite evidence for the notion of a critical period in language acquisition.

Back 5

If humans are specially adapted to learn language, perhaps we are adapted to learn best during a critical period early in life. One way to test this hypothesis is to see whether people learn a second language better if they start young. The consistent result is that adults are better than children at memorizing the vocabulary of a second language, but children are much more likely to master the pronunciation and the more unfamiliar aspects of the grammar. Another way to test the critical period idea is to study people who were not exposed to language at all during infancy. There are a few cases of children who lived in the wild, raised by wolves or whatever, who were later found and returned to human society. Although they were limited in their language learning, the results are difficult to interpret for many reasons.

Clearer data come from studies of deaf children who were unable to learn spoken language and not given an opportunity to learn sign language while they were young. The result is clear: The earlier a child has a chance to learn sign language, the more skilled s/he will become. A child who learns English early can learn sign language later, and a deaf child who learns sign language early can learn English later, but someone who learns no language while young will never develop much skill at any language. This observation strongly supports the idea of an early critical period for language learning, although the exact duration of this period has not yet been determined.

Front 6

Williams syndrome

Back 6

Type of mental retardation in which the person has good language skills in spite of extremely limited abilities in other regards

Front 7

language of acquisition devise

Back 7

Built-in mechanism for acquiring language

Front 8

poverty of the stimulus argument

Back 8

Claim that children do not hear many examples of some of the grammatical structures they acquire and therefore that they could not learn them