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93 Cards in this Set
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Attachment |
the strong and enduring emotional bond between a child and a significant other and the processes that create and maintain this long-lasting social relationship |
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What age do children first show specific bonds? |
6-7 months of age separation anxiety starts to appear around 8 months |
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Psychoanalytic Approach to Attachment |
moves through stages in a way that is intimately related to the kinds of bond they form to others overemphasis on mother-infant bonding |
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Learning Theory Approach to Attachment |
focus exclusively on the infant's behaviour bonds emerge by association with positively reinforcing stimuli (breast to mother) fails to explain how infant bonds endure constant negative behaviour/neglect |
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Bowlby's Ethnological Approach to Attachment |
most widely accepted theory need for a secure base preattchment (0-6weeks) - attachment like behaviours with no specific target attachment-in-the-making (6weeks-8months) start using signals - smiles and crying - to focus on specific people clear-cut attachment (8-24 months) actively stay near a particular person - use caregiver as a safe base of explroation reciprocal attachment (2+ years) can take into account parent's needs and adjust accordingly |
Pre-attachment phase Attachment-in-the-making phase Clear-cut attachment phase reciprocal relationship phase |
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Components of Attachment |
Smiling (feedback loop increases time spent in proximity) clinging and touching (maintain proximity) cuteness (baby schema) varies across species |
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Contigent Responding |
infants anticipate the behaviour of social beings and become upset when those expectations are violated Ex. become distressed when parents look at them with an impassive straight face |
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Social Referencing |
rely on the expressions/behaviours of others to interpret various situations Ex. visual cliff experiment |
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Joint Attention and Gaze Following |
the infant and another person simultaneously attend to the same object or event may be critical for elaborating attachments into richer more meaningful bonds |
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Attachment Style |
the pattern of relating to significant others that is based on expectations about how they will respond and that affects perception, emotions, thoughts ,and behaviours in close relationships |
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Secure attachment (Type B) |
actively explore when mother is present shows distress when mother leaves but easily comforted when she returns friendlier to strangers when mother is present |
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Avoidant attachment (Type A) |
spontaneously explores more does not appear upset when mother leaves, and ignores her when she returns much less concern towards strangers |
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Anxious-resistant Attachment (Type C) |
less prone to explore show great distress when mother leaves and cannot be comforted when she returns never comfortable with strnagers |
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Disorganized attachment (Type D) |
far less consistent behaviour appear insecure and unusually controlling at the same time more likely to have come from a home where there is maltreatment |
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Indiscriminate attachment |
as affectionate and receptive to complete strangers as they are to their parents rush up to and cling to any adult |
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Parental effects on insecure attachment |
parents with more difficulty in perceiving and responding to distress related emotions maternal depression or anxiety during pregnancy father's view on parenting roles |
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Child effects on insecure attachment |
character traits such as extreme arousability, irritability or impulsivity affect a child's reaction to people and situations may react in a way that changes parenting (feedback loop) temperament |
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Early Social Deprivation |
Foundling babies Harlow's cloth monkey peer raised infants |
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Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) |
(in cases of extreme neglect) child rarely seeks or responds to comfort when distressed - minimal social or emotional response to others episodes of unexplained irritability, sadness or fearfulness even non-threatening interactions with adult caregivers |
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Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) |
(in cases of extreme neglect) culturally in appropriate, overly familiar behaviour with strangers willing to go with unfamiliar adult with little hesitation |
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Emotions |
transient states that correspond to physiological and cognitive processes associated with distinct internal sensations or feelings |
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Basic Emotions |
joy, sadness, disgust, surprise, anger and fear infants of 6 months show at least 6 basic emotions appear early in development, considered human universals because of the range of cultures that demonstrate them |
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Complex Emotions |
emotions that build on and occur developmentally later than basic emotions and through the introduction of more complex supporting cognitions about a situation includes many are self-conscious emotions cultures may bias people to interpret situations that lead to specific emotions |
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Machiavellian Emotions |
meant to influence and not simply reflect an internal state expressions that are used to produce an effect in others and that does not necessarily reflect the emotions actually felt by the individual expressing it |
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Moral Emotions |
Appears that infants react to 'nice' and 'mean' social agents in similar ways to older children and adults preverbal infants may have some intuitive sense of right and wrong |
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negativity bias |
infants show stronger tendency to respond more powerfully and consistently to negative emotions than to positive ones may be because there is a larger cost to ignoring or misinterpreting these emotions |
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Emotional Contagion |
when someone around us feels a particular emotion we subsequently seem to 'pick up' on it and feel the same way |
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Emotional Regulation |
we influence the emotions we experience, when and how we experience them, and how we reveal our emotions to others internal - infant external - parent or others |
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Situational factors |
situation modification: change the situation in which one is immersed (ex. moving away) Situation selection: take action that enable one to approach pleasant situations or avoid unpleasant ones |
situation modification situation selection |
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Attentional Deployment |
direct our thoughts in a way that makes a situation feel less emotionally charged ex. distraction, head turning |
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Response Modification |
managing an emotional reaction by directly influencing the physiological response itself (slowing heart rate) or by engaging in an activity that indirectly leads to a change in the expression of the emotion ex. thumb sucking |
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Temperament |
An infant's tendency toward particular emotional and behavioural responses to specific situations emerges early in infancy and remains relatively stable over time |
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Trait approaches to temperamnet |
focus on how much gene constibutes to individual variation; heritabilty focused on three fundamental trait-like categories Emotionality, Activity level, and Socialbility |
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Goodness of Fit |
The same environment is not optimal for all children and the environment that could devastate some children might have little to no effect on others difficult babies show better development than easy babies in situations of scarcity |
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Natural Language |
Any language that is spoken on a daily basis by a community |
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Phonology |
(component of language) the sound patterns of language and the rules for combining sounds into words |
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Semantics |
(component of language) the meaning of words as well as how words combine to convey larger meaning |
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Lexicon |
the set of words a person knows |
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Grammar |
(component of language) involves sentence structure but also relationship of elements inside words (ex. root words) |
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Pragmatics |
(component of language) how we use language to convey our intended meaning within a particular social context, and how we figure out other's intended meaning |
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Universal constraints |
limitations on the sets of language rules that are cognitively natural, resulting in consistent patterns of linguistic structures in all languages ex. pronouns to noun phrases |
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Prelinguistic vocalization |
sounds made prior to clear use of language involving cooing, squealing and babbling before infants can identify words they can produce pitch changes that characterize their language |
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One word utterances |
starts around 1 year usually referring to concrete objects but also actions and properties (dog, up, hot) |
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Multiword Utterance |
starts around 1.5 years children put together strings of words in utterances of two or more words (daddy read) show dramatic differences between individuals at this point |
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telegraphic speech |
shown during multiword utterances phase drop unimportant words in sentences (the) |
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Linguistic Rules |
over the preschool age children master many more levels of language complexity |
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Overregularization |
the excessive use of grammar rules so that it applies to more cases than it should go-ed to went to go-ed |
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Child directed speech |
how adults talk to children, this differs from how they talk to older children and adults drastically enunciate more, speak slower and at a higher pitch, simpler words and sentences more likely to attract the child's attention than to actually improve language learning |
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recasting |
where the parent rewords what the child uttered (usual in order to have it make more sense or correct grammar) |
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Behaviourist approach to language acqisition |
stress the way reinforcement shapes responses parents react more to babbling that sounds like words and sentences that make more sense criticism: parents rarely compliment children's grammar - respond more to meaning wold men children who learn two languages would take longer to learn them, not true |
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Connectionist approaches to language acquisiton |
a way of representing network associations based on computer simulations with multiple levels of associations language depends on the brain's ability for parallel processing criticism: the strings of phonemes input into the computer models are unrealistic and not the same way children learn them |
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Statistical learning approach to language acquisition |
learning based on the probability of events occurring both at the same time and in a sequence overtime |
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Nativist Approaches to language acquisition |
emphasizes the idea that human are born with specific brain systems specialized for acquiring any natural language |
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Language acquisition device |
(nativist approach to language acquisition) includes abstract principles that guide learning about the structural patterns common to all languages |
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Poverty of the stimulus agrument |
(nativist approach to language acquisition) children hear imperfect speech all the time therefore it could not be a sufficient basis for learning languages. Therefore they must already have some knowledge of language structure (imperfect speech = interrupted sentences and conversational talk) |
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semantic development |
the emerging understanding of word meanings and their interrelationships, requires linking words to concepts |
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Perceptual constraints on word meaning |
biases towards certain interpretations of words that arise from how we naturally carve the world into distinct objects and events shape bias - objects of roughly the same shape are assumed to have the same nme |
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Conceptual constraints on word meaning |
make some kinds of categories or relationships seem more 'natural' to label whole-object bias - preference for labeling whole, bounded objects |
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Pragmatic constraints on word meaning |
the goals and beliefs attributed to the speaker mutual exclusivity - the assumption that each object in a language has only one label |
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Overextension |
apply a word to broadly ex. all large four legged animals are cows |
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Underextension |
incorrectly applies a word to narrowly ex. dog only refers to large dogs similar to their own pet |
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Neural dissaciations |
language and other cognitive skills are affected differently by strokes or other damage to specific brain regions and neural circuits seems to be proof of domain-specific processing Ex. aphasias, williams syndrome, specific langage impairment |
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Linguistic relativity |
the idea that thoughts and perceptions are influenced by our native language |
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Linguistic Determinism |
the language we speak determines the mature of out thoughts (stronger versions or relativity) |
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The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis |
the idea that specific languages powerfully mold thought The grammar of a sentence can influence how an individual colour, number and masc/fem words examples |
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quantitative development |
smooth, continuous changes without the kind of abrupt transitions that would suggest a wholly new process or strucure |
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Qualitative development |
involves distinct and dramatic changes in structure |
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Domiain-general development |
broad mental capacities that are thought to be used in all kinds of thinking leads to advances in each and every domain of knowledge |
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Domain-specific development |
children go through a series of changes in knowledge and reasons that are unique to each domain |
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foundational constriants |
a constraint that is present from the start and is usually associated with natural accounts of learning and development; genetically rooted |
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emergent constraints |
a constraint that emerges over the course of development and reflects the influences of experience and the environment |
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transitive reasoning |
involves reasoning about known relationships of stimuli to infer a relationship between the stimuli that were not initially related to each other (A>B, B>C; A>C) |
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The preoperational period |
2-7 years old cannot think abstractly - fail conservation tasks
lack in compensation, reversibility, and identity |
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The concrete operational period |
7-12 years can now solve conservation tasks cannot reason about what happened if a situation is different from the way it is currently |
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The formal operational period |
12+ years ability to engage in hyopthetico-deductive reasoning emergence of scientific thinking skills |
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Core domains |
a domain of knowedge and though that is thought ti have a prvileged role in development, emerging early in infancy and maintaning a strong influence throughout much of development |
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cognitive maps |
which they mentally represent the spatial layout of their environment to infer distance, direction, and ways of navigating |
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What are ways that organisms keep track of their location? |
landmarks: serve as consistent reference points geometric information: construct a mental representation of the environment's overall shape |
landmarks geometric information |
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what counting principles are typically mastered by preschool children and which take longer? |
have well one-to-one correspondance (one number per object) stable order slightly older cardinality (last number= total) abstraction (anything can be counted) order of irrelevance (doesn't matter which one is first) |
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zone of proximal development |
the next step in cognitive development |
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scaffolding |
when people help children to progress to the next zone of proximal development |
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infantile amnesia |
the inability later in life to recall any memories of experience prior to about 2.5 years old |
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Memory format change hypothesis |
(on infantile amnesia) memory format or code changes so that memories formed very early in life become inaccessible to older children and adult |
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Neural change hypothesis |
(on infantile amnesia) some brain structures involved in memory, including the hippocampus and certain frontal lobe regions, must mature before they can set up and maintain episodic memories |
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cuing hypothesis |
(on infantile amnesia) the ability to cue, or trigger, memories changes with age in ways that may make very early memories inaccessible mostly nonverbal as a preverbal child |
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what are four influences on the emergence of episodic and autobiographical memory? |
1. explicit rehearsal of past events 2. development of narrative skills 3. social sharing of memories 4. development of a sense of self |
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three components of attention |
orienting alerting executive functioning |
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orienting |
drawing attention to a particular region earliest attention network to develop fully operational in infancy and changes little afterward |
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alerting |
arousing the attentional system through a sue that indicates that a targeted stimulus is about to occur and give some information about the target present in infancy and undergoes considerable refinement in early elementary school days |
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executive functioning |
the collection of cognitive activities involved in goal-directed tasks and problem solving three components: inhibitory control, shifting, working memory develops significantly during elementary and middle school years |
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analogical reasoning |
a way of comparing things that on the surface seem different in order to see deeper level similarities between them can reveal similarities between two domains thereby shedding light on patterns that could have otherwise gone unnoticed 3 year olds are capable of understanding analogies about familiar objects |
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scientific reasoning |
the ability to develop hypotheses about some aspect of the world and then effectively test those hypotheses with relevant data |
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metacognition |
the ability to think about our own mind and what we know and to think about knowledge in terms of its quality, depth, and relevance emerges gradually over elementary school years |
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