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288 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Digestion
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is the breakdown of foods into forms that cell membranes can absorb
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Mechanical digestion
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breaks large pieces of food into smaller ones without altering their chemical composition
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Chemical digestion
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breaks down food into simpler chemicals
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The organs of the digestive system
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carry out the processes of ingestion, propulsion, absorptions, defecation, & digestion
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The alimentary canal
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is composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, & anal canal
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The accessory organs of the digestive system are
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salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, & pancreas
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The alimentary canal
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is a muscular tube that passes through the body’s ventral cavity
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The four layers of the alimentary wall are
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the mucosa, submucosa, muscular layer, & serosa
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The mucosa is located
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as the inner lining & is composed of epithelial tissue, a small amount of connective tissue, & some smooth muscle
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The functions of the mucosa are
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to protect the tissues beneath it, secrete mucus & enzymes, & to absorb nutrients
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The submucosa is located
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deep to the mucosa & is composed of loose connective tissue, glands, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, & nerves
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The functions of the submucosa are
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to nourish surrounding tissues & to carry away absorbed substances
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The muscular layer is located
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between the submucosa & serosa & is composed of two coats of smooth muscle tissue
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When the circular fibers contract
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the diameter of the tube decreases
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When the longitudinal fibers contract
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the tube shortens
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The serosa layer
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is located superficial to the muscular layer & is composed of the visceral peritoneum
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The functions of the serosa are
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to moisten & lubricate the outside of the organ
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The two types of motor functions of the alimentary canal are
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mixing & propelling
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Mixing occurs when
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smooth muscles in small segments of the tube contract rhythmically
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Peristalsis
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is a wavelike motion
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Peristalsis occurs when
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a ring of contraction moves down the wall of the tube
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Branches of the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system
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innervate the alimentary canal
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The innervation of the alimentary canal maintains
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muscular tone
and regulates strength, rate, & velocity of muscular contractions.
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The submucosal plexus is important for
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controlling secretions by the gastrointestinal tract
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The myenteric plexus
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is important for gastrointestinal motility
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The functions of parasympathetic impulses are
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to increase the activities of the digestive system
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The functions of sympathetic impulses are
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to decrease the activities of the digestive system
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The functions of the mouth are
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to receive food & to begin digestion
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Mastication
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chewing
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The mouth is surrounded by
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lips, cheek, tongue, & palate
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The oral cavity
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is the space between the tongue & palate
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The vestibule of the mouth
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is the space between the teeth, cheeks, & lips.
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The cheeks form the lateral walls of the mouth & consist of
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skin, fat, muscles, & an inner moist lining
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The lips
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surround the mouth opening & consist of skeletal muscles, sensory receptors, & skin
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The reddish color of lips is due to
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the many blood vessels near their surfaces
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The tongue is located
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in the floor of the oral cavity
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Mucous membranes
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cover the tongue
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The frenulum of the tongue
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is a membranous fold that anchors the tongue to the floor of the mouth
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The body of the tongue is composed of
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skeletal muscles
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Muscles of the tongue function
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to mix food particles & push food to the back of the throat during swallowing.
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Papillae of the tongue
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are rough projections on the surface of the tongue
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Functions of papillae are
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to provide friction & to house taste buds
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The root of the tongue is anchored
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to the hyoid bone
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Lingual tonsils are located
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on the root of the tongue
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The palate forms
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the roof of the oral cavity & consists of a hard part & a soft part
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The hard palate is formed by
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the palatine processes of the maxillary bones & palatine bones
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The soft palate is formed by
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a mucous membrane & muscles
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The uvula
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is a downward extension of the soft palate
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The function of the uvula
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is to prevent food or liquids from entering the nasal cavity
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Palatine tonsils are located
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in the back of the mouth on either side of the palate
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Pharyngeal tonsils are located
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on the posterior wall of the pharynx, above the border of the soft palate
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The primary teeth
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are the first set of teeth to develop
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The secondary teeth
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are the permanent teeth
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The secondary teeth consist of
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32 teeth
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The arrangement of secondary teeth are
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two incisors, cuspid, two bicuspids, & three molars (from midline to back)
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Wisdom teeth are
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the third set of molars
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Chewing increases
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the surface area of food particles
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Incisors are specialized to
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bite off large pieces of food
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Cuspids are specialized to
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grasp & tear food
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Bicuspids & molars are specialized to
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grind food
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The crown of a tooth is the portion of the tooth
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above the gum line
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The root of a tooth
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is the portion of the tooth below the gum line
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The neck of a tooth is the area
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where the crown & root meet
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Enamel consists of
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calcium salts
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Dentin
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is living cellular tissue beneath enamel
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The root canal is located
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in the root of a tooth & contains blood vessels & nerves
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The pulp cavity
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is located in the crown of the tooth & contains blood vessels, nerves & connective tissue called pulp
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Cementum
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is bonelike material that surrounds the root
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A periodontal ligament
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fibrous structure that surrounds cementum & anchors the tooth to the jaw.
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Salivary glands secrete
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saliva
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The functions of saliva
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are to moisten food, bind food together, & begin the chemical digestion of carbohydrates
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The 3 pairs of major salivary glands are
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parotid glands, submandibular glands, & sublingual glands.
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Two cell types of salivary glands are
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serous & mucous
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Serous cells produce
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watery fluid that contains amylase
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Mucous cells produce
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mucus
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Amylase digests
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carbohydrates
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Salivary glands are innervated by
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both sympathetic & parasympathetic nerves
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Sympathetic fibers stimulate
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the glands to secrete a small volume of viscous saliva
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Parasympathetic fibers stimulate
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the glands to secrete a large volume of watery saliva
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The largest of the major salivary glands is
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the parotid
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The parotid glands are located
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anterior & inferior to each ear
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A parotid duct is located
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within the buccinator muscle & opens into the mouth just opposite the upper second molar on either side of the jaw
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The parotid glands secrete
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a water fluid rich in amylase
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The submandibular glands are in
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the floor of the mouth on the inside surfaces of the lower jaws
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The submandibular glands secrete
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primarily serous fluid
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Ducts of submandibular glands open
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inferior to the tongue
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The sublingual glands are located
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on the floor of the mouth inferior to the tongue
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The sublingual glands secrete
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primarily mucus
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The ducts of sublingual glands open
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beneath the tongue.
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The pharynx
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is a cavity posterior to the nasal & oral cavities
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The pharynx & esophagus function in
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swallowing
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The pharynx connects
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the nasal & oral cavities with the larynx & esophagus
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The three divisions of the pharynx are
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the nasopharynx, oropharynx, & laryngopharynx
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The nasopharynx is located behind
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the nasal cavity
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The nasopharynx provides a passageway
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for air
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The oropharynx is located
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behind the oral cavity
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The oropharynx is a passageway for
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food & air
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The laryngopharynx is located
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just inferior to the oropharynx
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The laryngopharynx is a passageway to
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the esophagus
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Constrictor muscles function
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to pull the pharyngeal walls inward during swallowing
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The events of the first stage of swallowing are
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chewing of food & the mixing of food with saliva
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The events of the second stage of swallowing are
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pushing of food toward the pharynx & the triggering of the swallowing reflex
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The events of the 3rd stage of swallowing are mvnts of food thru
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the esophagus & to the stomach
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The actions of the swallowing reflex are
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raising of soft palate, elevation of larynx & hyoid bone, pressing of tongue against soft palate, contraction of pharyngeal muscles, opening of the esophagus, & movement of food into the esophagus
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The esophagus
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is a passageway for food, propels food from the pharynx to the stomach.
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The esophagus descends through
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the thoracic cavity
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The esophageal hiatus
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is an opening in the diaphragm
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Mucous glands are scattered throughout
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the submucosa of the esophagus
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The lower esophageal sphincter is located
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where the esophagus & stomach join & functions to prevent regurgitation of food.
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The shape of the stomach is
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J shaped
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The location of the stomach
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is just inferior to the diaphragm in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity
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Rugae
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are thick folds in the lining of the stomach
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The functions of the stomach
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are to mix food with gastric juice, begin protein digestion, to begin a small amount of absorption, & movement of food into the small intestine
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The four parts of the stomach are
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cardiac, fundic, body, & plyloric
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The cardiac region is the region near
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the esophageal opening
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The fundic region
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is a pouch that extends superior to the cardiac portion
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The body of the stomach
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is the main part of the stomach
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The pyloric region
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is the narrow region that is continuous with the small intestine
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The pyloric sphincter is located
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between the pylorus & the duodenum & functions to control the movement of food into the small intestine
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Gastric pits are
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openings of gastric gland
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The three cell types of gastric glands are
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parietal, chief, & mucous
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Mucous cells secrete
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mucus
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Chief cells secrete
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digestive enzymes
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Parietal cells secrete
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hydrochloric acid & intrinsic factor
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Gastric juice is a mixture of
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the secretions of mucous, parietal, & chief cells
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Pepsin
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is an enzyme that digests proteins
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The function of pepsinogen
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is to be converted to pepsin when needed
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The fx of hydrochloric acid in the stomach
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is to convert pepsinogen into pepsin & destroy pathogens
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The coating of the stomach
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for protecting the stomach wall from digestive enzymes & acids
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The function of intrinsic factor
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is to aid in the absorption of vitamin B12.
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Somatostatin is produced in the
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stomach & functions to inhibit acid secretion
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Parasympathetic innervation stimulates
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the release of gastric juice
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Gastrin is produced in
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the stomach
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Gastrin functions to
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increase the secretory activity of gastric glands
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The three stages of gastric secretion are
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cephalic, gastric, & intestinal
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The events of the cephalic phase are
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secretion of gastric juice before food enters the stomach
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The events of the gastric phase are
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distension of the stomach & the release of more gastric juice
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The events of the intestinal phase are
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the movement of food into the small intestine
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Cholecystokinin is produced by
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the small intestine & functions to inhibit gastric secretions & decreases gastric motility
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The stomach absorbs
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alcohol, some drugs, salts, & a small amount of water.
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Most nutrients are absorbed
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in the small intestine
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A stomachache results from
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the rise of internal pressure in the stomach
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Chyme
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is food substances that have been mixed with gastric juice
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Peristaltic waves
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push chyme toward the pylorus of the stomach
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Stomach contractions
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push chyme a little at a time into the duodenum and backwards into the stomach, mixing it further
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The lower esophageal sphincter prevents
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regurgitation of food
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The rate at which the stomach empties depends
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on the fluidity of the chyme & its contents
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Liquids usually pass
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first through the stomach
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The enterogastric reflex
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is a reflex involving the small intestine & the stomach. It is triggered by distension of the small intestine wall & inhibits peristalsis in the stomach to slow down movement of food into the duodenum
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Vomiting results from
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a complex reflex that empties the stomach in the reverse of the normal direction
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The pancreas is located
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close to the duodenum posterior to the parietal peritoneum
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Pancreatic acinar cells produce
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digestive enzymes & make up the bulk of the pancreas
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Acini are clusters of
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acinar cells
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The pancreatic ducts extend the
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hepatopancreatic ampulla & empties into the duodenum
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Hepatopancreatic ampulla
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is a dilated tube that receives the pancreatic duct & hepatic duct
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The hepatopancreatic sphincter
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is the sphincter that surrounds the hepatopancreatic ampulla
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Pancreatic juice contains
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many enzymes & bicarbonate ions
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The function of pancreatic amylase
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is to digest carbohydrates
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The function of pancreatic lipase is to
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digest lipids
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The functions of trypsin, chymotrypsin, & carboxypeptidase are
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to digest proteins
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Zymogen granules
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are granules that store pancreatic enzymes
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The function of trypsinogen is to be converted to
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trypsin
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The functions of nucleases are
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to digest nucleic acids
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Parasympathetic fibers cause
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the pancreas to release pancreatic juice
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The function of secretin
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is to stimulate the pancreas to release pancreatic juice with a high concentration of bicarbonate ions
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The release of cholecystokinin is triggered by
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the presence of chyme in the small intestine
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The action of cholecystokinin on the pancreas is to
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release pancreatic juice that has a high concentration of digestive enzymes
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The largest internal organ is
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the liver
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The liver is located
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in the upper right abdominal quadrant
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The two large lobes of the liver are
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the right & left
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The falciform ligament
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is a fold that separates the lobes of the liver & anchors the liver to the posterior abdominal wall
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The two small lobes of the liver are
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caudate & quadrate
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The porta hepatis
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is where blood vessels & ducts enter or exit the liver
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The coronary ligament
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is a ligament that attaches the liver to the diaphragm
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Hepatic lobules are
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divisions of a liver lobe
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A hepatic lobule consists of
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many hepatic cells radiating outward from a central vein
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Hepatic sinusoids
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are vascular channels in hepatic lobules
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Kupffer cells
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are macrophages of the liver
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Bile canaliculi
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are canals within hepatic lobules that receive secretions from hepatic cells
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Hepatic ducts are formed from
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bile ductules of neighboring hepatic lobules
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The liver
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carries on many important metabolic activities
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The liver plays a key role in
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carbohydrate metabolism by helping maintain the normal blood glucose concentrations
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The liver plays a key role in lipid metabolism by
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oxidizing fatty acids, synthesizing lipoproteins, phospholipids, & cholesterol
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The liver plays a key role in protein metabolism by
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deaminating amino acids, forming urea, synthesizing plasma proteins, & converting amino acids to other forms of amino acid
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The liver stores
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glycogen, iron, & vitamins A,D, & B12
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Liver cells help destroy
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worn out red blood cells
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The liver removes toxic substances
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the blood
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The liver’s role in digestion is
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to secrete bile
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Bile is secreted by
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hepatic cells
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Bile contains
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water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, & electrolytes
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Hepatic cells use cholesterol to make
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bile salts
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Bile pigments are products of
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the breakdown of hemoglobin
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Jaundice results from
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an accumulation of bile pigments in the blood stream
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The gallbladder is located
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inferior to the liver
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The cystic duct
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is the duct of the gallbladder & opens into the common bile duct
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The common bile duct is formed from
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the cystic duct & common hepatic duct & opens into duodenum
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Gallstones form when
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bile is too concentrated, hepatic cells secrete to much cholesterol, or if the gallbladder is inflamed
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Cholecystokinin triggers
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the gallbladder to release bile
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Cholecystokinin is released
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in response to presence of lipids & proteins in the small intestine
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Functions of bile salts
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are to aid digestive enzymes by emulsifying fats, & facilitate the absorption of fat soluble vitamins
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Emulsification
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is the breaking of fat globules into smaller droplets.
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Lack of bile salts results in
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poor lipid absorption & vitamin deficiencies
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The small intestine extends from
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the pyloric sphincter to the large intestine
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The small intestine receives secretions from
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the pancreas, gallbladder, & liver
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The functions of the small intestine are
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to complete digestion, absorption of nutrients, & movement of solid wastes to the large intestine
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The three parts of the small intestine are
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duodenum, jejunum, & ileum
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The duodenum is located
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posterior to the parietal peritoneum just beneath the stomach
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The jejunum is located
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in the abdominal cavity between the duodenum & ileum
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The ileum is located
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in the abdominal cavity between the jejunum & large intestine
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Mesentery
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is double layered fold of peritoneum & supports the blood vessels, nerves, & lymphatic vessels that supply the intestinal wall
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The greater omentum
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is a double fold of peritoneal membrane that drapes like an apron from the stomach, over the transverses colon, & the small intestine
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The functions of the omentum are
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to prevent the spread of infections in the peritoneal cavity
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The velvety appearance of the inner wall of the small intestine is due
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to intestinal villi.
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intestinal villi
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are tiny projections of the mucosa of the small intestine.
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The functions of villi
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are to increase the surface area of the lining of the small intestine
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Each villus consists of a layer of
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simple columnar epithelium & a core of connective tissue containing blood capillaries, a lacteal, & nerves
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A lacteal
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is a lymphatic capillary
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Microvilli increase
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the surface area intestinal cells
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Intestinal glands are between
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the bases of adjacent villi
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Plicae circulares
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are circular folds in the mucosa of the small intestine
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Brunner’s glands
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are mucous secreting glands & are located in the submucosa of the proximal portion of the duodenum
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Brunner’s glands secrete
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alkaline mucus
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The enzymes embedded in the membranes of epithelial cells of the small intestine are
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peptidase, sucrase, maltase, lactase, lipase, & enterokinase.
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The functions of peptidases are
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to digest proteins
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The functions of sucrase, maltase, & lactase are
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to digest sucrose, maltose, & lactose
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The functions of intestinal lipase are to
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digest lipids
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Stomach contents entering the small intestine
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stimulate the duodenal mucous glands to release mucus
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Direct contact with chyme chemically & mechanically stimulates
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the goblet cells & intestinal glands to secrete their products
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Distension of the intestinal wall stimulates
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the parasympathetic reflexes that cause intestinal secretions
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The most important absorbing organ is
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the small intestine
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Carbohydrate digestion begins
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in the mouth & is completed in the small intestine
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Monosaccharides are absorbed by
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facilitated diffusion & active transport
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Protein digestion begins
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in the stomach & is completed in the small intestine
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Amino acids are absorbed by
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active transport
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Fat molecules are digested
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almost entirely by the small intestine
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Chylomicrons are
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lipoproteins that contain lipids & proteins
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Chylomicrons are carried to the blood by
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lymph
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Chylomicrons in the blood transport
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dietary fats to muscles & adipose cells
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VLDL molecules
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produced in the liver, transport triglycerides synthesized from excess dietary carbohydrates
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LDL delivers
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cholesterol to tissues, HDL remove cholesterol from tissues & deliver it to the liver
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The ions absorbed by the intestinal villi are
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sodium, potassium, chloride, nitrate, & bicarbonate
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Water is absorbed by
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osmosis
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Segmentation
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is the major mixing movement of the small intestine
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Chyme moves slowly through
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the small intestine
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Parasympathetics enhance
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mixing & peristaltic movements & sympathetics inhibits mixing & peristaltic movements
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A peristaltic rush
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is the rapid sweeping the contents into the large intestine
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Diarrhea results from
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a peristaltic rush
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The ileocecal sphincter joins
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the small intestine’s ileum & large intestine’s cecum
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Large Intestine
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is the last part of the digestive system in vertebrates. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation |
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The large intestine is located
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primarily in the abdominal cavity & part of the pelvic cavity
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The functions of the large intestine are
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to form feces, eliminate solid wastes, & to absorb remaining water & electrolytes from chime
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The parts of the large intestine are
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cecum, colon, rectum, & anal canal
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The cecum
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is the initial portion of the large intestine
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The vermiform appendix is located
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off the cecum & consists of lymphatic tissue
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The 4 parts of the colon are
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ascending, transverse, descending, & sigmoid colon
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The ascending colon is located
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on the right side of the abdominal cavity
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The transverse colon is located
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between the ascending & descending colon
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The descending colon is located
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on the left side of the abdominal cavity
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The sigmoid colon
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is an s shaped portion of the colon off the descending colon
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The rectum
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is the continuation of the sigmoid colon
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The anal canal
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is the continuation of the rectum
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Anal columns are
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folds of mucous membranes in the anal canal
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The anus
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is the opening of the anal canal
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Two sphincters of the anus are
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the internal & external
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The internal anal sphincter is composed of
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smooth muscle
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The external anal sphincter is composed of
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skeletal muscle
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Teniae coli
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are bands of smooth muscle that extend the length of the large intestine
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Haustra are pouches
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of the large intestinal wall created by teniae coli
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Epiploic appendages
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are collections of fat in the serosa on the outer surface of the large intestine
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Mucus secretion into the lg intestine is controlled by
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mechanical stimulation & parasympathetic impulses
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The functions of mucus in the large intestine are
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to form & store feces, eliminate feces, & absorb remaining water & electrolytes from chime
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Chyme entering the large intestine contains
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few nutrients, nondigestible materials, water, electrolytes, mucus, & bacteria
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The large intestine can absorb
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water & electrolytes
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Intestinal flora
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is a bacterial population that exists in the large intestine
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The functions of intestinal flora are
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to synthesize some vitamins & to produce gas
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The mvnts of the large intestine are
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similar although less frequent than those of the small intestine
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Mass movements are produced when
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a large section of the intestinal wall constricts vigorously
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The defecation reflex
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is triggered by holding a deep breath & contracting the abd wall muscles
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The actions of the defecation reflex are
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to increase internal abdominal pressure & the forcing go feces into the rectum, Peristaltic waves are triggered & anal sphincters relax
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A person can inhibit defecation by
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contracting the external anal sphincter
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Feces are composed of
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materials that were not digested or absorbed, some water, electrolytes, mucus, & bacteria
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The pungent odor or feces results from
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a variety of compounds that bacteria produce.
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The effects of aging on teeth include
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thinning of enamel, thickening of cementum, receding of gums, & loosening of teeth
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Dry mouths in elderly people are usually a result
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of side effects of drugs
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Frequent heartburn may be the result of
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the slowing of peristalsis in the stomach
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Effects of aging on the small intestine include
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decreased efficiency in absorbing nutrients & vitamins
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The effects of aging on the lg intestine include
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thinning of lining &decreased mucus production that leads to constipation
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The effects of aging on the pancreas, liver, & gallbladder include
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a decline in their secretions
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