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139 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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transcription
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copies the DNA sequence comprising a gene into an RNA molecule that is complementary to one strand of the DNA double helix, called the template strand.
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translation
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this process uses the information copied into RNA to manufacture a specific protein by aligning and joining certain amino acids
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RNA Polymerase
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an enzyme. uses DNA as a template to build mRNA transcripts of gene.
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mRNA (messanger)
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a copy of the information to make a protein.
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tRNA (transfer)
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a molecule that matches amino acids to genetic instructions
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rRNA (Ribosomal)
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Forms the core of the ribosome
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repressor
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a protein that binds to the DNA in a way that specifically prevents transcription of theses genes
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promoter
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binding site for the receptore contains a region called this. It acts like an on or off switch for transcription. It is the sight for RNA polymerase to bind..
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operon
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the DNA region containing the genes involved in lactose metabolism, along with their controls. Pg 241
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anticodon
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a 3 base sequence on one loop of a transfer RNA molecule; it is complementary to an mRNA codon and joins an amino acids and its mRNA instructions.
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introns
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bases of a gene that are translated but are excised from the mRNA before translation into protein.
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genetic codes
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the correspondence between the chemical languages of mRNA and protein. particular mRNA codons correspond to particuluar amino acids.
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mutation
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any physcial change in genetic material. May occur spontaneoulsy through chemical changes in the bases or through errors during DNA replication. Often harmful but not always detrimental.
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mutagen
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an agent that causes mutation
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point mutation
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a change in a single DNA base.
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missense mutation
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changes a codon that normally specifies a particular amino acid into one that encodes a different amino acid. (one type of point mutation)
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nonsense mutation
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change in a single base that results in changing a codon specifying an amino acid into a "stop" codon. (one type of point mutation)
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frameshift mutation
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adding or deleting bases by any number other than a multiple of three usually devestates a genes function. It disrupts the reading frame and therefor also disrupts the sequence of amino acids.
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synonymous codons
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different codons that encode the same amino acids. the genetic code is also said to degenerate because of this redundancy
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somatic mutation
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usually only affects a single cell and its decendants . can affect somatic cells or sex cells
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germinal mutation
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change in the DNA of a gamete. Passer to ever cell in the new body. causes system wide problems. Unlike somatic muations which can result in a tumor
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binary fission
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a type of asexual reproduction in which a prokaryote cell divides into two identical cells. Pg 164
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sexual reproduction
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mixes up and recombines inherited traits from one generation to the next. the combination of genetic material from two individuals to create a third
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asexual reproduction
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reproduction without sex. any form of reproduction that does not require the fusion of gametes
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parthenogenesis
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female reproduction without fertilization
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haploid
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when a nuclei contain only one set of chromosomes they are called this
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diploid
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cotain two sets of chromosomes they are called this. formed when two haploid gametes merge
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gametes
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the special cells of the parent that combine to form the first cell of the offspring
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meiosis
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form of cell division that havles the genetic material.
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fertilization
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the joining of the haploid nuclei that results from meiosis which reconstitues the dipolid cell.
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alternation of generations
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multicellular diploid and hapolid stages. the life cycle of plants and many green algae which alternates between a diploid sorophyte stage and a haploid gametophyte stage.
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sporophyte
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diploid spore-producing stage of plant life cycle
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gametophyte
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the haploid gamete producing stage of the plant life cycle
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conjugation
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combines genes from two individuals. a form of gene transfer in prokaryotes. pg 166
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germ cells
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the cells that undergo meiosis and give rise to gametes
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gametogenesis
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meiosis and maturation. making gametes
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reduction division
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(meiosis 1). It reduces the number of chromosomes.
In humans from 46 to 23 |
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equational division
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The second division (Meiosis 2). produces four cells from the two formed in the first division. each with half of the DNA content of the original parent cell.
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homologous pairs
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chromosome pairs that have the same sequence of DNA
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sex chromosomes
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The X and the Y chromosomes. Carry genes that determine the sex
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chromatid
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a continous strand of DNA comprising one half of a replicated chromosome
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centromere
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a complex that holds two chromatids together
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alleles
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different forms of the same gene
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crossing over
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the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during prophase one of meiosis
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spermatogenesis
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formation and specialization of sperm cells. Pg 174
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spermatogonium
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a dipliod cell that divides , yeilding cells that become sperm cells
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primary spermatocytes
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an intermediate in sperm formation
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secondary spermatocytes
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a hapolid cell that is an intermediate in sperm formation
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spermatids
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yielded from a secondary spermatocyte. an intermediate stage in sperm development
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spermatozoa
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a mature tad pole shaped sperm
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spermatogonium
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a dipliod cell that divides , yeilding cells that become sperm cells
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primary spermatocytes
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an intermediate in sperm formation
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secondary spermatocytes
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a hapolid cell that is an intermediate in sperm formation
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spermatids
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yielded from a secondary spermatocyte. an intermediate stage in sperm development
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spermatozoa
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a mature tad pole shaped sperm
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spermatogonium
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a dipliod cell that divides , yeilding cells that become sperm cells
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primary spermatocytes
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an intermediate in sperm formation
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secondary spermatocytes
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a hapolid cell that is an intermediate in sperm formation
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spermatids
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yielded from a secondary spermatocyte. an intermediate stage in sperm development
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spermatozoa
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a mature tad pole shaped sperm
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acrosome
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contains enzymes that help the sperm cell penetrate the eggs outer membrane
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seminiferous tubules
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in the male reproductive system this is where meiosis begins
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testes
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the tubules are stored here. form the testicles
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epididymis
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tightly coiled tube that collects the products of all the seminiferous tubules and stores spermatids for future use.
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vas deferens
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a tube that joins the urethra. the sperm cells are sent into this structure when the epididymis contracts during ejaculation
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oogenesis
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meiosis in the female. (Egg making)
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oogonium
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a diploid cell in which egg formation begins
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primary oocyte
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an intermediate in ovum formation
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polar body
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a small cell generated during female meiosis, enabling cytoplasm to be partitioned into just one of the four meiotic products, the ovum
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secondary oocyte
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a haploid cell that is an intermediate in sperm formation
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ovaries
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the paired female gonads that house developing oocytes. also in flowering plants, the enlarged basal portion of a carpel
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dominant
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the trait that masks the other trait
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recessive
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the trait that is masked.
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law of segregation
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mendels idea that elementen seperate in the gametes.
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alleles
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genes of alternate forms
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homozygous
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an individual with two identical alleles
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dominant
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the trait that masks the other trait
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recessive
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the trait that is masked.
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law of segregation
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mendels idea that elementen seperate in the gametes.
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alleles
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genes of alternate forms
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homozygous
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an individual with two identical alleles
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heterozygous
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if two alleles in a individual are different
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genotype
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a persons genetic makeup
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phenotype
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describes the outward expression of an allele combination
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wild type
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this phenotype is the most common expression of a particular gene in a population. Not dependent on a dominant gene but on how common the gene is.
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test cross
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the crossing of a indivual of an unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual
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punnent square
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a device used o diagram the various possible genetic results of combining gametes.
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autosomal recessive
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a trait that can skip generations because heterozygotes show no symptoms and therefore, are carriers. Pg 190
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autosomal dominant
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an individual with this trait must have an affected parent unless the trait arose by mutation
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pedigrees
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charts that depict family relationships and phenotypes over several generations
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law of independent assortment
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a gene for one trait does not influence the transmission of a gene for another trait.
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product rule
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the chance that two individual events will occur equals the product of the individual chances that each event will occur.
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penetrance
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how often a particular genotype is expressed with a particular phenotype
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incompletely penetrant
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a genotype is this if some indivduals who inherit the disease causing genotype do not express the phenotype. pg 195
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expressivity
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the variation of a traits expression in different individuals.
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pleiotropy
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when some genes appear to be responsible for more than one trait.
If it is pleiotropic it is a genotype with multiple expressions. Pg 195 |
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Blood
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page 196. STUDY!
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epistasis
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a gene masking another genes experssion. Different from dominant masking a ressesive because this one occurs between two different alleles
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incomplete dominance
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a heterozygote whose phenotype is intermediate between the phenotypes of the two hoozygotes
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codominant
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alleles that are both expressed in the heterozygote
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chromosome
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a long continous piece of DNA plus RNA and several types of assosciated proteins.
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heterochromatin
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dark staining genetic material
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euchromatin
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light staining genetic material
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karyotype
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a size order chart of chromosomes
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telocentric
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a chromosome with a centromere at the tip
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acrocentric
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a chromomsome whose centromere divides the chromosome into a long arm and a short arm
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submetacentric
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a chromasome in which the centromere sets off a short and a long arm
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metacentric
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a chromosome whose centromere divides divides it into two similarly sized arms
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cytogenetics
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the assosciation of particular chromosomes with particular traits, including abnormalities constitues this field of study
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linked
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genes that are inherited together and do not assort independently
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recombinant chromosomes
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result from the mixing of maternal and paternal alleles into new combinations in the meiotic products
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parental chromsomes
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retain the gene combinations from the parents.
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"cis"
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if two dominant alleles travel on one chromosome and the two recessive alleles on the other the genes are said to be in this type of orientation
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"trans"
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when one dominant is near one recessive allele on a chromosome the two genes are in repulsion and said to be in this type of orientation
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polygenic
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a trait caused by more than one gene
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multifactorial
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traits that are influenced by the environment
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empiric risk
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a prediction of recurrence based on multifactorial traits incidence in a specific population
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heritability
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the proportion of a trait attributable to heredity
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monozygotic twins
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are always of the same sex and have identical genes because the develop from one fertilized ovum
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dizygotic twins
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are no more similarly genetically than any other two siblings. although they share the same parental environment because they develop at the same time from two fertilized ova
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concordance
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the degree to which a trait is inherited and it is calculated as the percentage of twin pairs in which both members express the trait
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heterogametic sex
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the gender with two different sex chromosomes. in all mammals the male is this
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homogametic
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the gender with two of the same sex chromosome. in all mammals the female is this
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x-linked
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genes that are carried on the x chromosome. traits usually recessive whose alleles reside on the x chromosome
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y-linked
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a gene carried on the why chromosome
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X inactivation
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turning off one x chromosome in each cell of a female mammal at a certain point in prenatal development
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hemizygous
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a gene on the y chromosome in humans. because a male only has one x chromosome he is this for x linked traits because he has half the genes the female has. he either has the trait or he does not. pg 214
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template strand
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the DNA strand of the doulbe helix that the RNA molecule uses to create a complementary strand
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TATA box
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consists of the base sequence TATA and surrounded by long stretches of G and C
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TATA binding protein
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the first transcription factor to bind and is attracted to a DNA sequence called a TATA box
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coding strand
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the other strand of DNA that was not used as the template strand and its sequence is identical to that of the RNA transcript for thymine replaces uracil.
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ribosome
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cellular factory for manufacturing proteins
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mRNA cap
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a modified nucleotide added to a 5' end of the mRNA molecule. Helps protect the mRNA from degredation
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poly-A tail
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helps to protect the mRNA from degredation along with the mRNA cap
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exon
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portions of the mRNA that are translated
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central dogma
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the directional flow of information between nucleic acids and proteins
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chaperone proteins
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proteins that bind to the amino acid chain to prevent incorrect interactions and also stabalize regions that are important to the molecules final form.
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chiasmata
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visible points of crossing over between homologous chromosomes
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bar body
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an inactivated X chromosome. is seen as a dark staining inactivated X chromosome
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