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239 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what happens in G0 stage of mitosis?
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cells rest
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what is checked out for error during metaphase?
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chromosomal attachment to kenitichore
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what is checked out for error during G1?
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DNA integrity
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what is checked out for error during G2?
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cell size and completion
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what is unregulated cell division known as?
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cancer
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what happens during cell division: transduction?
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signal molecule hits receptor in cell and activates it
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what happens during cell division: response?
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conversion of external signal to internal
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what happens during cell division: reception?
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activation of cell cycle
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a little signal still has a --- response.
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big
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what are proto-oncogenes?
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receptor protein genes
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what are oncogenes?
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mutations in proto-oncogenes; cause cancer
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can a point mutation be caused by a virus?
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yes
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what happens in gene amplification?
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a gene is duplicated numerously when it should not be
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what are antibodies?
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proteins that recognize and bind specific molecules; used as a preventer for viruses.
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what do tumor suppressor proteins do?
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inhibit cell division if an error is present in DNA
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what silences tumor suppressor genes?
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methylation
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what is an epigenetic phenomenon?
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process that alters gene activity without altering DNA
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does overactive telomerase cause cancer?
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yes
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what is a single stranded nucleic acid complementary to mRNA which prevents protein production called?
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antisense drug
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what is the first step in cancer development?
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mutation 1,2
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what is the second step in cancer development?
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benign growth
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what is the third step in cancer development?
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another mutation invades growth and other tissues
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what is the fourth step in cancer development?
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metastasis; cancer spreads throughout body
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what is angiogenesis?
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formation of blood cells; in this case relating to cancer growth near a tumor
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what is chemotherapy?
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injection of chemicals into blood stream to kill dividing cells
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what does taxol do?
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prevents kinetochores MTS from shortening
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what is radiation therapy?
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high energy particles damage DNA which then destroys or injured cells.
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how do prokaryotes reproduce?
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bianary fission
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haploid + haploid =
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zygote
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in meiosis, 1 parent cell results in - daughter cells.
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4
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what is an allele?
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an alternate form of a gene
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what is the purpose of meiosis?
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gamete production
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what is synapsis?
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homologous chromosomes pairing up
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what are bivalents?
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paired homologous chromosomes
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what is 'crossing over'?
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exchange of genetic material between chromosomes (mix and match)
-forms recombinant DNA |
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in meiosis I, metaphase I, what is independent assortment?
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random arrangement of maternal/paternal chromosomes on metaphase plate.
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does DNA replication occur between meiosis 1 and 2?
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no
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meiosis II is very similar to ---.
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mitosis
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in general, a diploid cell can produce -- combinations of homologues.
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2^n (where n=haploid chromosomes)
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what is nondisjunction?
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members of a pair of homologous chromosomes of a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly.
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what is an anueploid?
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cell with altered chromosome number.
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what does it mean to be monosomic?
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having one less chromosome
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what is an autosome?
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chromosomes #1-22
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what does it mean to be trisomic?
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having an extra chromosome
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what does trisomy on chromosome #21 lead to?
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down syndrome
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does the risk of down syndrome increase with maternal age?
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yes, greatly
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what does trisomy on chromosome #18 lead to?
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edward syndrome
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what does trisomy on chromosome #13 lead to?
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Patain syndrome
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what is a possible cause of down syndrome?
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a problem could exist with the M checkpoint where MTs attach to kinetochore
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what is amiocentesis?
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withdrawl of amniotic fluid where fetal cells are cultured to determine trisomy
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what is chronic villus sampling?
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sample of placenta and test of karyotype cells to determine trisomy
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what is klinefetter syndrome?
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where a person has an extra X sex chromosome; underdeveloped testes
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what is turner syndrome?
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where a person only has on X chromosome; webbed skin
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when considering alteration in chromosomal structure, what does deletion do?
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removes a chromosomal segment
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when considering alteration in chromosomal structure, what does duplication do?
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repeats a segment; cancer
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when considering alteration in chromosomal structure, what does inversion do?
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reversal of a segment
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when considering alteration in chromosomal structure, what does reciprocal translocation do?
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non-homologous chromosomes exchange segments
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which chromosome does cat's cry effect?
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#5
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in translocation, an oncogene encodes for an abnormal --- of proteins that causes the cell to constantly divide.
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fusion
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what is phenotype?
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physical traits of an organism
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what is genotype?
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genetic make up of an organism
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what is an allele?
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an alternate version of a gene
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what is a dominant allele?
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a fully expressed trait in an organism's phenotype, even if another allele is present
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what is a recessive allele?
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no effect on phenotype if dominant allele is present
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alleles --- from each other during meiosis.
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separate
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what does it mean to be homozygous?
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both alleles are the same
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what does it mean to be heterozygous?
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2 different alleles
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what the relationship between genotype and phenotype?
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a protein function can function 100% properly, 50% properly, or 0%
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what does it mean if an organism is a carrier?
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it's heterozygous
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what does independent assortment refer to?
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random alignment on the metaphase plate
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what is the typical ratio for a cross of 2 heterozygotes?
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9:3:3:1
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are dominant genes always more abundant?
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no
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what does it mean to have incomplete dominance?
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heterozygotes which have both alleles showing. ie) red/white = pink
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what does codominance mean?
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both phenotypes show
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what is an example of codominance?
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blood type
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the y chromosome is known as a genetic ----.
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wasteland
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if there is an x-linked gene on a sex chromosome that has an error, males/females will be affected.
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males
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what are epigenetics?
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any process that alters gene activity without changing DNA sequence
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can epigenetics be transmitted to daughter cells?
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yes
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euchnomatin is --- packed.
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loosely
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heterochromatin is --- packed.
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tightly; not expressed
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what is x inactivation?
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use of bar bodies so that only one x chromosome is functioning at once
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what are barr bodies?
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inactive x chromosomes
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what is a mossaic?
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a chromosome that partially functions, partially doesn't function
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what happens when when ATP is phosphorolated?
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it gains energy and thus functions
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what happens in glycosis?
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glucose is broken into pyruvate and 2 net ATP
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what is x inactivation?
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use of bar bodies so that only one x chromosome is functioning at once
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what are barr bodies?
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inactive x chromosomes
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what is a mossaic?
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a chromosome that partially functions, partially doesn't function
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what happens when when ATP is phosphorolated?
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it gains energy and thus functions
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what happens in glycosis?
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glucose is broken into pyruvate and 2 net ATP
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what happens during pyruvate processing?
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the 2 puruvate molecules break into 2 NADH (CoA) molecules and 2 CO2 molecules
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what happens during the krebs cycle?
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the CoA molecules is broken into NADH, FADH2, CO2, and ATP (all x2)
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what happens during substrate level phosphorylation?
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enzymes grab P from a molecule (a substrate) and transfer it to ADP
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what happens in the breakdown of glucose? (2)
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1. bonds break/new ones form
2. electrons get shuffled |
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what molecules capture electrons?
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electron carriers
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what are the two carrier molecules for electrons?
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NAD+ and FADH2
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where do carrier molecules give their electrons?
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to the electron transport chain
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what molecule is the final e- acceptor?
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O2
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e's move up/down the electron transport chain?.
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down
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movement of electrons provides --- for H pumps.
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energy
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what does ATP synthase do? (3)
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1. allows H+ to flow through it
2. uses facilliated diffusion 3. catalyzes formation of ATP |
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what happens during oxidative phosphorylation?
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formation of ATP through combination of proton pumping by electron transports and actions of ATP synthase.
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about how many ATP molecules does one glucose produce by oxidative phosphorylation?
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34
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what process occurs during aerobic respiration?
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glycosis
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what are two processes that occur during anaerobic respiration?
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1. fermentation (muscles)
2. fermentation; alcohol glycolysis |
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what happens during fermentation in muscles?
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glucose --> lactic acid
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what happens in the formation of alcohol?
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glycolysis --> ethanol
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what adaptation do animals have within their systems that conserves water and creates surface area?
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folding
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body cells are bathed in --- ----.
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interstitial fluid
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what are the three main reasons we eat?
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1. ATP
2. Materials for Cells 3. Nutrients and Vitamins |
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how do suspension feeders obtain food?
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sift small food particles from water
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how do substrate feeders obtain food?
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they live in/on the food source
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how do fluid feeders obtain food?
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suck nutrient rich fluids from living host
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how do bulk feeders obtain food?
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eat relatively large pieces of food
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which part of the body varies widely according to what animals eat?
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mouth
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mammals are the only vertebrates that --- their food.
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chew
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what is the definition of digestion?
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breakdown of food into small enough pieces to allow absorption
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what is the definition of absorption?
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uptake of specific nutrient molecules
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what does mechanical digestion do?
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physically breaks food into smaller pieces thus increasing surface area
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what does chemical digestion do?
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enzymes break down food from macromolecules into their monomers.
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where does digestion start?
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in the mouth
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what does salivary amylase do?
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breaks down polysaccharides
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what does lingual lipase do?
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breaks down fat
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what do mucins do?
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lubricate food
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what do antibacterial agents do?
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kill bateria
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what is bolus?
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slimy wad of food after chewing and before digestion
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what is peristalsis?
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muscles pulling food down esophogus
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what does gastric juice do?
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digests food
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what two things make up gastric juice?
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1. HCl (pH 2)
2. Pepsin |
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Pepsin becomes -----, an enzyme that digests proteins
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protease
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what type of tissue protects stomach cells? what are they (what do they do)?
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epithelial tissue; sheets of tightly packed cells that line organs, body cavities, and external surfaces
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pepsin is secreted in an --- form only when --- is present.
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inactive; food
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what are parietal cells?
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inactive forms, such as pepsinogen
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when pepsin is activated from pepsinogen and HCl, pepsin then stimulates more pepsin production. What is this called?
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positive feedback
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what happens when stomach epithelial cells undergo rapid mitosis?
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ulcers
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acid ---- moves from stomach to small intestine.
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chyme
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during chemical digestion, carbohydrates are broken down by -----and ----.
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pancreatic amylase and proteins
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trypsinogen is ----- from the pancreas
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inactive
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trypsinogen is mixed with with enterokinase to be active ----.
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tripsin
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the formation of tripsin starts a chain of active ----
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proteases
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bile is made in the --- and stored in the --- ----.
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liver, gall bladder
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bile emulsifies --- which then allows pancreatic lipase to further break the lipid down.
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fat
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nucleic acids are made by the ---- and made up of ----.
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pancreas, nucleotides
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absorption of nutrients occurs across the ---- ---.
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small intestine
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what are villi?
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little folds for absorption in intestinal wall
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what do lacteals do?
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connect to lymph systems where nutrients enter blood stream
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nutrients enter the bloodstream, then go to the ----, and then to the rest of the body.
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liver
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fatty acids combine with proteins and chloresterol to form ----.
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chylomicron (fat in blood) ---> lacteal
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--- cells secrete pepsinogen.
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chief
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--- cells secrete HCl.
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parietal
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what are the differences of a small intestine of a herbivore in contrast to that of a carnivore.
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longer, the cecum is larger, more digestion time, more S.A., CECUM IS ANAEROBIC chamber containing bacteria that digest cellulose, eat poop
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what are three functions of the large intestine?
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1. reclaim water
2. elimination of solid waste 3. home to mutualistic bacteria |
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epidermal cells are held together at --- ---.
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tight junctions
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what regulate the digestive process?
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hormones
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what are hormones?
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chemical messengers that are released into the blood stream and act on a distant target cell.
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by what process do cells release digestive enzymes?
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endocytosis
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what protein is secreted by fat cells that decreases food intake and metabolic rate?
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leptin
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what is homeostasis?
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maintenance of constant internal conditions
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what is negative feedback?
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a change in variable triggers mechanisms that reverse that change.
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what are two ways appetites can be out of control?
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1. no gene encoding for leptin
2. damaged leptin receptors (can't be fixed) |
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gas exchange and circulation must occur between ---- and external environment.
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mitochondria
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gas exchange and circulation involve ----, ---, and --- (3).
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ventilation, circulation, cellular respiration
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what is ventilation?
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movement of air and water across an exchange surface
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all gases move by ---- and must be dissolved in water to do so.
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diffusion
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what are characteristics of respiratory surfaces?
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thin (about one cell), large surface area, moist, living cells, contact with circulatory system
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animals that use their entire outer skin as a respiratory surface are generally --- and live in --- environments.
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thin/flat and moist/wet
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when considering body structure of animals, there is an inverse relationship between --- and ---.
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volume and surface area
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how do gills ventilate?
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open and close mouth which pumps water across gills
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in gills, the flow of water over the gills is -----.
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unidirectional
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what does it mean to have water flow in countercurrent exchange?
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water goes in one direction, blood goes in another. very efficient for taking O2 out of water.
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tracheal systems minimize --- loss whole maximizing --- ---.
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water, gas exchange
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what are spiracles?
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holes in exoskeleton which lead directly to cells
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how do animals with tracheal systems ventilate?
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diffusion in small insects and muscle contraction in large insects
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in lungs, the tips of bronchioles cluster into sacs of ---- where gas exchange occurs.
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alveoli
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air in a lungs system travels down the ----, splits in the -----, and goes into the ----.
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trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
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how do lunged animals breathe?
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negative pressure; inhalation and exhalation
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when inhalation occurs, the diaphragm is contracting/relaxing.
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contracting
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what does it mean if air flow is tidal?
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gas exchange is not across entire respiratory surface
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what is residual volume?
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air left in alveoli after exhalation (oxygen depleted 'dead air')
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how is ventilation in a bird lung different than other lunged animals?
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more efficient with air sac, pushes air over lungs, one way air flow, and air tubes vs. avelioli
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blood flow of birds is by means of --- --- ----.
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cross current exchange
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put in order of most efficient to least circulatory system: birds, fish, humans.
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fish, birds, humans
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what two things make up blood?
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plasma and cells
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plasma is the liquid part of blood. What is in it? (4)
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1. ions
2. proteins 3. nutrients/hormones/gases 4. wastes |
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what are the three cells that are found in blood?
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1. red blood cells
2. white blood cells. 3. platelets |
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where do red blood cells develop?
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stem cells in bone marrow
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red blood cells are unique in that they lack ---, ----, and ---.
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nuclei, mitochondria, and organelles
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what are red blood cells full of?
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hemoglobin
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what is hemoglobin?
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a protein made up of four polypeptide chains
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what is does iron heme do in hemoglobin?
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binds O2 to hemoglobin (reversibly so)
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CO binds to hemoglobin ---.
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irreversibly
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production of CO2 during cellular respiration promotes unloading of --- by hemoglobin in active tissue.
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O2
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during cellular respiration glucose mixes with O2 to give CO2 water and ATP. When the CO2 reacts with water, what then happens?
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free H+ molecules are released and pH is lowered to maintain homeostasis
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how is CO2 transported?
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a little stays in the plasma, a little is picked up by hemoglobin, and most reacts with water in red blood cells and carried as bicarbonate in plasma.
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what two phyla have closed circulatory systems?
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vertebrates and annelids
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what does it mean to have a closed circulatory system?
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blood is contained in vessels and pumped by a heart
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what do arteries do?
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carry blood away from the heart
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what do veins do?
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carry blood to the heart
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what do capillaries do?
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connect arteries and veins
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what are capillary beds?
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the site of gas exchange, as well as nutrients and wastes
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what are the characteristics of arteries?
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thick, elastic, muscular
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what are the characteristics of veins?
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surrounded by skeletal muscle which then push blood through valves for correct flow
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what are the characteristics of capillaries?
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thin, large diameter, slow flow
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fish have a -- chambered heart.
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2
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fish have --- circulation with a sluggish flow
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single
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amphibians have -- circulation with a vigorous flow.
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double
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amphibians have a -- chambered heart which mixes O2 and CO2 blood.
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3
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mammals and birds have a -- chambered heart.
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four
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mammals and birds have -- circulation.
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double
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endothermic animals use --- times the energy as exothermic ones.
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ten
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what is the fluid in open circulatory systems called?
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hemolymph
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animals that live at high altitudes have:
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large heart and lungs, many red blood cells, high hemoglobin, and high oxygen affinity
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animals that dive have:
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large blood volumes, many red bloods cells, muscles containing myoglobin, and perform anaerobic respiration
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how are nitrogenous wastes disposed of?
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urine
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what is nitrogenous waste?
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nitrogen containing molecules that break down into ammonia and ammonium (toxic to cells)
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what are the three ways that animals pee.
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1. ammonia/ammonium across gills
2. urea 3. uric acid |
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aquatic animals excrete ammonia. its toxicity is ---. it's water loss is ---. it's energy cost is ---.
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high; high; low
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mammals excrete urea. its toxicity is ---. it's water loss is ---. it's energy cost is ---.
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low; moderate; moderate
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birds, insects, reptiles excrete uric acid. its toxicity is ---. it's water loss is ---. it's energy cost is ---.
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low; low; high
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what is a nephron?
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functional unit of the kidney
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what are the tubes that connect the kidney to the bladder called?
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ureters
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where is water reabsorbed in the nephron?
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the loop of Henley
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what part of the nephron filters blood?
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proximal tubule
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where does the nephron attach to the capillary?
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collecting duct
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what are the three steps in urine production?
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1. formation of pre-urine (filtration)
2. reabsorption of water and nutrients 3. removal of more water |
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what is filtration?
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extraction of water and urea from the blood. non selective.
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what is the glomerulus and bowman's capsule?
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blood filtering unit
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what is reabsorption?
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getting the good stuff from pre-urine back into the blood
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what body part is important to reabsorption?
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microvilli (with the help of aquaporins)
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where does the removal of more water occur?
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loop of henley (water moves by osmosis)
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the ascending limb of the nephron is permeable to salt/water.
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salt
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the collecting duct is permeable to salt and urea/water.
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salt and urea
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capillaries remove --.
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water
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do freshwater fish have a loop of henley?
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no
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do sea mammals have a loop of henle?
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yes; a short one
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do desert mammals have a loop of henle?
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yes; very long ones
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activity of the distal tubule and the collecting duct are regulated by ---.
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hormones
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what do antidiruetic hormones do?
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stimulate thirst; causes aquaporins to be put in collecting duct
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