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219 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the seven properties/qualifications of life?
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cells, energy processing, response to environment, regulation, reproduction, growth and development, evolution
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what is bio evolution?
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the change of a species over time
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what is natural selection a mechanism of?
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evolution
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what type of bond does water have?
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polar covalent
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what is an H-bond?
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attraction of partial charges
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what is an example of a monosaccharide carbohydrate?
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glucose
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what is an example of a disaccharide carbohydrate?
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sucrose
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what is an example of 3 polysaccharide carbohydrates?
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cellulose, starch, and glycogen
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what are the three main functions of polysaccharides?
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energy storage, structure, and cell signaling/recognition
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what are monomers of proteins called?
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amino acids
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how many amino acids are there?
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20
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which two functional groups do amino acids contain?
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amine and carboxyl groups
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what does it mean to be hydrophilic?
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water loving
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what does it mean to be hydrophobic?
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water hating
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what type of bond forms between amino acids?
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peptide
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what does the primary structure of a protein look like?
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linear sequence of amino acids
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what does the secondary structure of a protein look like?
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localized folding into alpha helixes and beta sheets
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what does the tertiary structure of a protein look like?
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globular shape mixing alpha and beta
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what does the quaternary structure of a protein look like?
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distinct polypeptides combined
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how many amino acids vary in sickle cell hemoglobin vs normal?
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one
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what is an enzyme?
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a biological catalyst which speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction in the body.
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which type of fat is worse for consumption, cis or trans?
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trans
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what are the boundaries of waist circumferences in women and men?
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35/40''
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what does it mean if a protein is denatured?
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it unfolds
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what is one property that all lipids have?
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hydrophobic
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what are six functions of lipids?
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growth, utilization of vitamins, insulation, energy, regulatory function, and cell membranes.
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what are sterols?
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membrane structures that help resist temperature change and act as some hormones
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which are two common sterol hormones?
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estrogen and testosterone
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which structure are steroids found in?
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ring
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cholesterol is a ---.
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lipoprotein
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what is good? HDL or LDL
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HDL ---> happy
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which lipids are triglycerides?
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fats and oils
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what does a triglyceride consist of?
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a 3 carbon backbone and 3 long carbon tails
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what does it mean if a molecule is saturated?
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it contains all single bonds
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animal/plants have saturated fats.
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animals
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Do saturated fats contain more HDL or LDL?
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HDL
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What is hydrogenation?
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elimination of double bonds via the adding of hydrogen atoms
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what happens in partial hydrogenation always?
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cis ---> trans
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what are phospholipids?
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components of cell membranes
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what do phospholipids consist of?
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a glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a 'head group'
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phospholipids have a hydrophilic/phobic head and two hydrophilic/phobic tails.
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phillic/phobic
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because of it's duel nature in water solubility, phospholipids are classified as being ------ (hint frog)
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amphipathic
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what are the three functions of plasma membranes?
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regulation of what enters cell, specific shape, and cell/cell interactions
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what is the function of organelle membranes?
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compartmentalization of functions
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what do transmembrane proteins do?
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extend through membrane
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what do peripheral proteins do?
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don't extend through membrane
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what to glycoproteins do?
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they control cell signaling and recognition. they also have a carbohydrate group attached.
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what is the function of cholesterol in cell membranes?
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stabilization
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phospholipids --- freely laterally within their half of the bilayer.
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move
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what types of molecules does simple diffusion use?
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small, uncharged, hydrophobic, and gases
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what types of molecules does facillitated diffusion use?
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various
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what types of molecules does osmosis use?
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water
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what types of molecules does active transport use?
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various
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does simple diffusion use membrane specific proteins?
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no
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does facilitated diffusion use membrane specific proteins?
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yes; carriers and channels
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does osmosis use membrane specific proteins?
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no; but aquaporins help
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does active transport use membrane specific proteins?
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yes
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Does simple diffusion take energy?
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no
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Does facilitated diffusion take energy?
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no
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does osmosis take energy?
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no
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does active transport take energy?
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yes
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Does simple diffusion move up or down the concentration gradient?
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down
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Does facilitated diffusion move up or down theconcentration gradient?
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down
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Does osmosis move up or down theconcentration gradient?
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down
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Does active transportmove up or down theconcentration gradient?
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up/against
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what is facilitated diffusion?
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diffusion through a protein
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what is the difference between a channeled protein and a carrier protein?
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channeled has 'gates' where carrier just changes shape.
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which is faster diffusion: channeled or carrier?
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carrier
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when identifying ATP, look for the only molecule with 3 groups of ----.
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phosphates
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ADP is the same as ATP except it only has -- phosphate groups.
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2
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when the word 'pump' is used concerning membrane transport, which method is it implying?
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active transport
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what is exocytosis?
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movement of substances out of cells by fusion of vesicles w/ membrane and then spilling out the waste.
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what is endocytosis?
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movement of substances into the cell by 'pinching' in
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what is vesicular (bulk) transport?
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movement of large substances by means of vesicles.
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what is a vesicle?
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a membrane-bound sac
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what is phagocytosis?
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cell eating; uses large molecules to hold them in vesicles. non-selective.
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what is pinocytosis?
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cell drinking; uses small molecules to dissolve into cell. non-selective.
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what is receptor-mediated endocytosis?
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selective absorption of certain substances into a cell by means of receptor proteins.
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what is an example of receptor-mediated endocytosis?
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APO proteins and LDL; this is connected to Alzheimer's Disease.
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which cell type does not contain a nucleus?
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prokaryotic
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which cell type contains a nucleus?
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eukaryotic
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what are the three animal domains?
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bacteria, archea, and eukarya
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t/f: prokaryotic cells are single cellular.
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true.
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t/f: prokaryotic cells contain a plasma membrane and a rigid cell wall.
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true.
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bacteria have chromosomal DNA as well as circular rings of specific genes known as ---.
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plasmids
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bacteria have long whips extending off of them known as ---.
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flagellum
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archea are known for living in --- environments.
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extreme
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where do methanogens live?
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in oxygen-free environments. produce methane gas.
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where do extreme thermophiles live?
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extremely hot temps (230F)
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where do extreme halophiles live?
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extremely salty conditions.
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which cells are larger: prokaryotes or eukaryotes?
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eukaryotes; causes diffusion problems
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how is difficult diffusion solved in eukaryotic cells?
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compartmentalization
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what is an organelle?
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a membrane-bound compartment
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why are eukaryotic cells more efficient than prokaryotic cells?
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they have separated incompatible chemical reactions
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what is the double membrane that surrounds the nucleus called?
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the nuclear envelope
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what is the function of the nucleolus?
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produces ribosomes
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what is the lamina?
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protein network
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what are the two functions of lamina?
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1. nuclear shape and structure
2. organization of DNA |
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what is the function of pores on the nucleus?
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regulates proteins exiting/entering the nucleus.
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What do NLS and NES stand for when concerning nuclear pores?
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Nuclear Localized Signal
Nuclear Export Signal |
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what is a model organism?
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an organism which is extremely studied in order to apply information to other organisms.
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what is a 'knockout mouse'?
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a mouse which has a purposely added defect as an alteration in a control.
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what protein is lacking in an individual suffering from Hutchinson-Gilford? (premature aging)
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lamin-A
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Rett Syndrome, the leading cause of mental retardation in females, is caused by what?
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miscommunication within the pores of a nucleus and the proteins entering/exiting it.
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What does the endoplasmic reticulum do?
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it's the biosynthetic factory
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what does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum do?
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produces lipids.
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what makes smooth endoplasmic reticulum different from rough?
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smooth doesn't contain ribosomes.
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what does the rough endoplasmic reticulum do?
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produces proteins
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where do proteins go once they leave theendoplasmic reticulum?
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vesicles
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where do proteins go once in vesicles?
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golgi body
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What two things happen to proteins in theendoplasmic reticulum?
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1. fold
2. possible modification |
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what do chaperones in the endoplasmic reticulum do?
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help proteins fold properly
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what are two ways that proteins can be modified in the endoplasmic reticulum?
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1. attach chemical groups
2. cleaving |
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how do proteins leave the endoplasmic reticulum?
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they are stored in vesicles which then take them to the golgi body.
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vesicles FUSE with --- face of the golgi.
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cis
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vesicles BUD OFF of the --- face of the golgi.
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trans
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What two things happen in golgi?
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1. proteins are further modified
2. vesicles are shipped to destinations |
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what are lysosomes?
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digestive compartments
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Lysosomes contain hydrolytic --- that break down macromolecules.
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enzymes
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Lysosomes change -- in order to digest molecules.
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pH ---> about 5
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what enable lysosomes to change pH?
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proton pumps
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why is it necessary for lysosomes to change pH?
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so that the hydrolytic enzymes can function properly.
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What are three ways materials get into the lysosome?
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1. Phagocytosis
2. Autophagy 3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis |
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what is autophagy?
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self-eating (of a material in a cell)
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what two things is the early endosome made up of?
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1. vesicles from golgi
2. enzymes |
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pompe's disease lacks an ---- which leads to a build up of glycogen in the liver and muscles.
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enzyme
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what do peroxisomes do?
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break down fatty acids and toxins by means of oxidation reactions
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what is a byproduct of peroxisome reaction? (hint: good example of compartmentalization in action)
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H2O2 -- hydrogen peroxide
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what do mitochondria and chloroplasts do in simple terms?
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transform energy
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what is cellular respiration?
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energy is extracted from chemical bonds in food to form ATP.
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what is the chemical formula of cellular respiration?
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C6H12O6 + O2 ---> H2O + CO2 + ATP
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Mitochondria have their own ---.
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DNA
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Mitochondria and chloroplasts both have very similar characteristics to --.
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bacteria
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what is the chemical formula of photosynthesis?
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H20 + CO2 + light ---> C6H12O6 + O2
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what is the cytoskeleton composed of?
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large protein complexes
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what does the microfilament look like?
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it's a long chain of actin subunits; changes size.
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what does microtubule look like?
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it's a spiral chain of tubulin subunits.
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what does intermediate filament look like?
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a whistle pop with fibrous subunits.
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what is the function of microfilament?
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cell division control
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what is the function of microtubule?
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chromosomal movement when passing from the endoplasmic reticulum to the golgi body
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what is the function of intermediate filament?
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helps with nuclear lamina
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what does the motor protein do?
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converts chemical ATP into motion; pulls the protein vesicle from the endoplasmic reticulum to the golgi.
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what three things can a vesicle do once it leaves the golgi?
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1. fuse into lysosome
2. become a lysosome 3. leave plasma membrane |
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what is the difference between DNA and RNA chemically?
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RNA has an OH attached to the 2 carbon where DNA has an H.
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how many carbons are in a DNA sugar?
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5
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what is T replaced with in RNA from DNA?
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U
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what is meant by directionality?
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5'----->3'
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what does DNA polymerase do?
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builds DNA polymers; need OH to function
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what does antiparallel mean?
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5'----->3'
3'<-----5' |
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how many chromosomes do humans have?
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46
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what does topisomerase do?
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relieves supercooling ahead of replication fork.
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what does DNA open?
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origin of replication
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what do single stranded binding proteins do?
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hold strands apart and provide stability
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what does helicase do?
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unzips double helix
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what does DNA polymerase III do?
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adds nucleotides to 3' end to form new strand
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what does primase (RNA primer) do?
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attaches to DNA at origin of replication providing an open 3' end.
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what are okazaki fragmenst?
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bits of completed DNA on the lagging strand between spaces where there is no DNA.
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What does DNA polymerase I do?
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removes RNA and fills in okazaki fragments
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what does ligase do?
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fills in phosphate diester bonds from gaps where RNA used to be.
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why is RNA shorter on the lagging strand?
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when the RNA primer is removed, DNA polymerase can't fill in the gap so the RNA is simply shorter
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what is a telomer?
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end tip of a chromosome that is a repeated sequence that doesn't contain genes
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about how many divisions can a cell undergo before dying?
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about 40
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why might cells die?
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too short = loss of genetic information and odd fusing with loss of telomers
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what is telomerase?
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an enzyme that extends telomers; prevents shortening of chromosomes
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where is telomerase made? (2)
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embryo and stem cells
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50% of cancer is shown to root from what enzyme?
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telomerase
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what do nucleases do in mismatch repair systems?
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chop out mismatch and surrounding are
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what does mRNA stand for?
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messenger RNA
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what does tRNA stand for?
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transfer RNA
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what is a genome?
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all genetic material contained in that organism?
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what is a gene?
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a segment of DNA transcribed into RNA and then translated into a protein
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what percent of DNA is actually coding DNA?
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5%
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how many gene subsets are turned on at a specific time in a cell?
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1
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what is a promoter?
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a specific sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and begins transcription
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what directionality is RNA formed?
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5' to 3'
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what is the product of transcription?
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RNA transcript or 'pre-mRNA'
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what does the RNA end cap do? (2)
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buffers and provides stability as well as binds to ribosome
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what does the RNA poly-A-tail do? (2)
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buffers and provides stability as well as is needed to leave the nucleus
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what occurs during RNA splicing?
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introns are looped and then removed; exons connect while introns degrade
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What is a complement to the template strand of DNA
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mRNA
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there are two --- regions at the tips of mRNA.
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untranslated
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what is a triplet of nitrogen bases which determines which amino acid goes in the polypeptide chain.
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codon
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what is genetic code?
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dictionary of connected codons to amino acids
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mRNA codes for ----.
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amino acids
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what is tRNA?
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connection between codon and amino acid
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what is an anticodon?
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3 bases binding to complementary codon on mRNA
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what does it mean if tRNA is charged?
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it had amino acid attached to it
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where are ribosomes made?
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nucleolus
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what are ribosomes made of?
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protein and rRNA
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what are the three binding sites on tRNA?
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acceptor site, peptidyl site, and exit
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what initiates translation?
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start tRNA anticodon binds to start mRNA codon
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which binding site do the anticodons bind to during translation elongation?
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A or acceptor site
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what happens during translocation?
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the ribosome moves down mRNA; A site is vacant
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what does a signal recognition particle do during translation?
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it's a protein that binds to a single peptide
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what is a mutation?
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a change in single/few nucleotides
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what is base pair substitution?
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replacement of one base pair for another by mutation
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what is silent substitution mutation?
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no change in aminos/protein
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what is missense substitution mutation?
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codes for different amino acid
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what is nonsense substitution mutation?
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stop codon in wrong place; termination of protein synthesis
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what is a chromosome?
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structure containing genetic material
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how many chromosomes are in the human karyotype?
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46
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what is mitosis?
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division of the cell nucleus
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what is cytokinesis?
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division of cytoplasm and organelles
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1 parent cell results in - daughter cells.
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2
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what are the three functions of mitosis within an organism?
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1. growth
2. repair/replacement 3. asexual reproduction |
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what happens in phase 5 in the cell cycle?
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DNA replicates
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What happens in G2 in the cell cycle?
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translation/transcription for cell growth
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what is a centrosome?
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an organization site for microtubules
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do chromosomes replicate before or after mitosis?
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before
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what is the centromere?
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region of DNA where sister chromatids are attached (attachment for kinetochore proteins)
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what is the kinetochore?
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site of microtubule attachment
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what is the first phase of mitosis?
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prophase
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what occurs in prophase?
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-chromosomes condense
-migration to poles - spindles form -microtubules attach to kinetochores |
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what is the second phase of mitosis?
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metaphase
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what happens during metaphase?
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chromosomes line up on metaphase plate
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what is the third phase in mitosis?
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anaphase
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what happens during anaphase?
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-kinetochore microtubules shorten and sisters split
-cell elongates |
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what is the fourth phase of mitosis?
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telephase
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what happens during telephase?
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-nuclei reform
-cell contents divide into halves -formation of cleavage furrow -cell splits into 2 |
