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301 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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About how often do we completely recycle CSF?
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3 times/day
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Brain uses ___% of oxygen at rest
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20
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Brain uses ___% of glucose at rest
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50
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Endothelial cells in brain capillaries are joined by _______
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tight junctions
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5 Brain Functions (REMAC)
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regulate internal environment subconsiously, emotions, movement (voluntary), aware of body & surroundings, cognitive processes like thought and memory
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List brain components from evolutionarily oldest to newest
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Brain stem, cerebellum, hypothalamus, thalamus, basal nuclei, cerebral cortex
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Hypothalamus & Thalamus make up the _______
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Diencephalon
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Basal nucliei & Cerebral cortex make up the ____
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Cerebrum
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The Diencephalon and Cerebrum make up the _____
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Forebrain
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3 parts of brainstem, from bottom to top (MPM)
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medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain
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5 functions of brain stem (CSCRS)
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Cranial nerves arise, receives and integrates incoming Sensory synaptic input, Controls heart & blood vessel &respiration & digestive, Regulate muscle, govern Sleep
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nerves are _______
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bundles of neurons
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sensory neurons are
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afferent
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motor neurons are
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efferent
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3 functions of cerebellum (PCMs)
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Proper position of body in space, subconscious Coordination of motor activity, learning Motor skills
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Main Function of thalamus
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Performs primitive sensory processing
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3 Function of hypothalamus (HEE)
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Controls many homeostatic functions, links to endocrine system, emotional and behavioral patterns
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3 Functions of Basal nuclei (ISS)
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inhibit muscle tone, supress useless movement, slow and sustained contractions like posture
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6 Functions of Cerebral cortex (VSCLPI)
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Voluntary movement, sensory perception, conscious thought, language, personality traits, intellect
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Cerebral cortex hemispheres are connected by
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corpus callosom
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Name 4 lobes of each of the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
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occipital, temporal, parietal, frontal
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Function of occipital lobe
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visual
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Function of parietal lobe
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somatosensory (touch, temp)
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Function of temporal lobe
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auditory (hearing)
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Function of frontal lobe
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motor, higher thought processes
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Left hemisphere excels in_____
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logical, analytical, sequential and verbal
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Right hemisphere excels in____
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spatial perception, artistic and musical
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Front portion of the parietal lobe is ____
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somatosensory cortex
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Primary motor cortex is located
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in the frontal lobe
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Primary areas for language (2)
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Broca's area, Wernicke's area
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___ governs speaking ability, ____ is responsible for language comprehension and formulated speech patterns
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Broca's, Wernicke's
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Broca's area is in what lobe?
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frontal
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Wernicke's area is in what lobe?
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parietal
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aphasias is a disorder of what area?
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wernicke's
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speech impediments are a disorder of what area?
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broca's
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dyslexia is a disorder of what area?
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wernicke's
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when eyes are closed, ___ waves dominate. When eyes are open, ____ waves dominate
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alpha, beta
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The spinal chord is a cylinder of ___ ___, ____ with brain, surrounded by ____ ____, and origin of ____ pairs of ___ ___.
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nerve tissue, continuous, vertebral column, 31, spinal nerves
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____ matter is cell bodies and synapses are happening, ____ matter is mylinated axons
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Gray, White
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Gray matter is split into ___(?) and ___(?).
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Dorsal (sensory) Ventral (motor)
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SAME DAVE
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Sensory Afferent, Motor Efferent, Dorsal Afferent, Ventral Efferent
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White Matter forms ____ and its either ____:____ or ____:____
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track, ascending:up to brain, descending: down from the brain
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Any response that occurs automatically without conscious effort
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reflex
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Two types of reflexes:
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Simple or basic, Acquired
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What are simple reflexes? example
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built-in, unlearned, knee-jerk
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What are acquired reflexes?
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result of practice and learning, dodging a ball
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Five basic components of reflex arc
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Receptor, Afferent pathway, Integrating center, Efferent pathway, Effector
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2 Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
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Autonomic Nervous System, Somatic Nervous System
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__ is the involuntary branch of the PNS
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Autonomic
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___ is the voluntary branch of the PNS
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Somatic
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Two subdivisions of ANS
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Sympathetic, Parasympathetic
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___ prepares body for strenuous activity and is responsible for fight or flight
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Sympathetic
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___ promotes body maintenance activities (sleep) and is responsible for rest and digest
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Parasympathetic
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___ increases heart rate, ____ decreases heart rate
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Sympathetic, Parasympathetic
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____ increases GI activity, ____ decreases GI activity
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Parasympathetic, Sympathetic
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Two-neuron chain: ___ fiber and ___ fiber
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preganglionic fiber and postganglionic fiber
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What effector organs (4) are affected by postganglionic neuron
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cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands and adipose tissue
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What is not affected by postganglionic neuron?
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skeletal tissue
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In the sympathetic NS, preganglionic fibers are ___ and postganglionic fibers are ___
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short, long
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In the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS, preganglionic fibers release ___
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acetylcholine
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In the sympathetic NS, most postganglionic fibers release ___
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noradrenaline/norepinephrine
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In the sympathetic NS, fibers originate in ___ and ___ of spinal chord
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thoracic and lumbar
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In the parasympathetic NS, fibers originate in ___ and ___ of CNS
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cranial (brain stem) and sacral
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In the parasympathetic NS, postganglionic fibers release ___
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acetylcholine
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In sympathetic, what is the receptor called?
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Nicotinic cholinergic receptor
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The effector organs on sympathetic have a ____ receptor
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adrenergic
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The effector organs on parasympathetic receptors are called
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muscarinic cholinergic receptor
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What is considered a modified part of sympathetic nervous system? Why is it modified?
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Adrenal Medulla; does not give rise to postganglionic fibers
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What do Cholinergic receptors bind to?
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acetylcholine
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Two types of Cholinergic receptors
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Nicotinic, Muscarinic
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___ receptors are always stimulatory, ___ can be stimulatory or inhibitory depending on tissue type
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Nicotinic, Muscarinic
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What do andrenergic receptors bind to?
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norepinephrine and epinephrine
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Two types of andrenergic receptors
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alpha, beta
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__ elicit an effect that mimics neurotransmitter
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agonists
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___ block neurotransmitter's response
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antagonists
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___ is a drug that increases heart rate because it ____
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atropine, blocks neurotransmitter response in parasympathetic nervous system that might slow heart rate
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Regions of CNS involved in Autonomic Activities (PMSH)
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Prefrontal, Hypothalamus, Medulla, Spinal Cord
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what portion of the CNS controls skeletal muscle contraction?
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Somatic Nervous System
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The main function of the somatic nervous system is ___
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voluntary control
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Motor Unit is ___ ___ plus all the ___ ___ it innervates
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motor neuron, muscle fiber
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The fewer muscle fibers a motor neuron innervates, the ___ the control
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finer
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__ ___ is where your motor neuron innervates the skeletal muscle
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neuromuscular junction
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(Somatic) Action potential opens voltage gated ____ channels, ____ rushes into the cell causing ____ of ____.
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Calcium, Calcium, exocytosis, Ach
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(Somatic) ACh binds to ____ ____ ____ which opens nonspecific ___ ___ causing ___ to enter cell and ___ to leave and you get _______.
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Nicotinic cholinergic receptor, cation channels, sodium, potassium, depolarization
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Why is the CNS so heavily protected?
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It is very delicate and it doesn't heal well
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The brain needs a constant supply of what 2 things?
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Oxygen and glucose
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What 5 things offer support and protection of the CNS?
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Glial cells, meninges, blood brain barrier, CSF, and Skull/vertebrae
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90% of CNS is made up of ____ ___
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Glial cells
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What are the 5 types of glial cells?
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Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Ependymal cell, microglia, and schwann cells
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What are the main functions of the astrocytes? (4)
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"Glue" of CNS, Guides neurons in early development, aids in establishment of blood brain barrier, neural scar formation
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What is the main function of oligodendrocytes?
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Form myelin sheaths around axons in CNS
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What is the main function of microglia?
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Immune system of CNS
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What is the main function of ependymal cells?
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Help form and circulate CSF
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What are the 3 meninges?
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Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater
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What is the function of the blood brain barrier?
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Limits access of blood-borne materials into brain tissue
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What meninges is closest to the skull?
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Dura mater
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What meninges is highly vascularized?
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Arachnoid mater
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What is the main function of Arachnoid mater
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reasorbs CSF through arachnoid villi
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Pia mater contains ___ ___ that make cerebral spinal fluid
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ependymal cells
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What meninges is attached to the spinal chord?
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Pia mater
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The extracellular fluid of the CNS is called
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Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)
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What are the functions of CSF? (2)
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Cushions brain, maintains interstitial fluid environment
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Which elements are more concentrated in PLASMA than in ESF?
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Protein, glucose, Calcium, potassium
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Which elements are more concentrated in ESF than in PLASMA?
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Sodium and chloride
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CNS comprises ___% of body weight?
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2%
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CNS receives ___% of blood supply?
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15%
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CNS depends on aerobic/anaerobic glycolysis?
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aerobic
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Fatty acids are/are not used for energy.
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are not
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What products are diffused through blood-brain barrier?
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Non-polar: Oxygen, CO2, steroids, ethynol
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What products are regulated and transported?
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Polar: Glucose, amino acids, ions
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What are the 4 functions of blood-brain barrier? PMPL
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Protects from chemical fluctuations, minimizes infection in CNS, prevents certain hormones, and limits used of drugs in CNS
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Which brain area controls food intake and body temperature?
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Hypothalamus
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Which brain area acts as a relay system?
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Thalamus
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Four types of nerves (CTLS)
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Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral
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What type of reflex is the knee-jerk at the doctor's office?
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Stretch reflex (simple/basic)
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What type of reflex is the burn your hand and remove?
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Withdrawal reflex (simple/basic)
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What type of reflex is if you step on something with one foot and withdraw then put weight on other leg
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Crossed-extensor reflex (simple/basic)
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What type of reflex is walking?
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Conditioned
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Parasympathetic has much finer control (T/F)
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TRUE
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T/F Most arterioles and veins receive only parasympathetic nerve fibers
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FALSE
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T/F arteries and capillaries are not innervated
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TRUE
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T/F Most sweat glands are innervated only by sympathetic nerves
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TRUE
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T/F Only parasympathetic stimulates salivary secretion
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FALSE: sympathetic does too.
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Arterioles in the genitals are innervated by the ___ system
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parasympathetic
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___ causes mucousy saliva
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parasympathetic
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___ causes watery saliva
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sympathetic
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Which type of receptor is always stimulatory?
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Nicotinic cholinergic
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Which receptor can be excititory or inhibitory?
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Muscarinic cholinergic
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In adrenal medulla, stimulation of preganglionic fiber prompts secretion of _____ into _____
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epinephrine/norepinephrine, blood stream
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Where are muscarinic receptors found?
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Effector organ of parasympathetic NS
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Where are adrenergic receptors found?
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Found on effector organ of sympathetic NS
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What happens in the heart with sympathetic/parasympathetic?
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sympathetic: speeds up heart rate / parasympathetic: slows down heart rate
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What happens in the blood vessels with sympathetic/parasympathetic ns?
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sympathetic all but arterioles to brain, parasympathetic affects none.
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What happens in lungs with sympathetic?
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relaxation of bronchial muscles, inhibits secretion in bronchial glands
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What happens in lungs with parasympathetic?
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contraction of bronchial muscles, stimulates secretion in bronchial glands
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What happens in digestive track with parasympathetic?
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increases motility, stimulates secretions, relaxes sphincters
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What happens in digestive track with sympathetic?
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decreases motility, inhibits secretions, contracts sphincters
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What happens in the pancreas with sympathetic ns?
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inhibits secretion
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What happens in the pancreas with parasympathetic ns?
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stimulates secretion
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What happens in the salivary glands for sympathetic?
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stimulates mucousy secretion
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What happens in the salivary glands for parasympathetic?
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stimulates watery secretion
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What happens in the kidneys for sympathetic?
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Stimulates renin release
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What happens in the kidneys for parasympathetic?
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Nothing
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What happens in the urinary bladder for sympathetic?
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relaxation of bladder wall, contraction of sphincter
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What happens in the urinary bladder for parasympathetic?
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contraction of bladder wall, relaxation of sphincter
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What happens in the male reproductive system for sympathetic
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Nothing in blood vessels, ejaculation in vesicles
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What happens in the male reproductive system for parasympathetic?
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Vasodilation in blood vessels, nothing in vesicles
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What happens in the female reproductive system for sympathetic
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Relaxation and Contraction of uterus
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What happens in the female reproductive system for parasympathetic
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Unknown
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What happens in the skin for sympathetic?
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Stimulates secretion in sweat glands, contraction in piloerector muscles
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What happens in the skin for parasympathetic?
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Stimulates secretion in sweat glands, nothing in piloerector muscles
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What happens in the eyes for sympathetic?
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Contraction of radial muscle, relaxation for far vision
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What happens in the eyes for parasympathetic?
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Contraction of circular muscle, contraction for near vision
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What happens in liver for sympathetic and parasympathetic?
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sympathetic: stimulates glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis / parasympathetic: none
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What happens in adipose tissue for sympathetic and parasympathetic
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sympathetic: stimulates lipolysis / parasympathetic: none
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motor neuron innervates ___ ___ ___
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many muscle fibers
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___ ____ ____ controls skeletal muscle contraction
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somatic nervous system
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how many neurons between the cns and the skeletal muscle? what is it called?
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1, motor neuron
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A __ __ is the motor neuron plus all the muscle fibers it innervates
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motor unit
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the more muscle fibers a motor neuron innervates, the _____ that motor unit
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stronger
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What is the neurotransmitter released during muscle contraction?
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Acetocholine
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What type of receptors are found on the motor end plate on the sarcolema?
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Nicotinic cholinergic
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List steps of muscle contraction (5)
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1) Action potential opens Ca+ channels and release of Ach 2) Ach binds to Nicotinic cholinergic receptors 3) opens cation channels 4) depolarizes skeletal muscle 5) causes action potential that causes muscle contraction
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A black widow's venom causes a release of ___ which causes what to happen?
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Ach, diaphram to contract one last time (one last breath)
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Botulism blocks the release of ____ which does what?
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Ach, won't allow you to contract your diaphram (no last breath) *Botox relaxes muscles
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Stronger stimuli lead to higher _____ of action potentials.
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frequency
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Stronger stimuli activate ____ receptors, which is called ____ ____
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more, population coding
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Coding for stimulus _____ is achieved by the type of receptor and pathway activated by stimulus
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type
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Coding for stimulus _____ is determined by frequency coding and population coding
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intensity
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Coding for stimulus _____ is based on receptive field size of receptors
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location
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Cortical Sensory Areas: 1) sight 2) hearing 3) smelling 4) touching 5) taste 6) balance
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1) visual 2) auditory 3) olfactory 4) somatosensory 5) Gustatory 6) Vestibular
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Receptive fields do the following a) detect temp b) detect pressure c) either a or b but not both d) both a and b
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c) either a or b but not both
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Slowly adapting receptors are called? Example
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Tonic, muscles
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Rapidly adapting receptors are called? Example
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Phasic, tactile receptors on skin (putting on clothes)
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Receptor Responsive to visible wavelengths of light
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photoreceptors
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Receptor Sensitive to mechanical energy
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mechanoreceptors
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Receptor Sensitive to heat and cold
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thermoreceptors
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Receptor Detect changes in concentration of solutes in body fluids
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osmoreceptors
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receptors for smell and taste and receptors that detect O2and CO2concentrations in blood
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chemoreceptors
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Pain receptors that are sensitive to tissue damage or distortion of tissue
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nociceptors
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Receptor may be one of two things: ____ ____ or ____ _____
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specialized ending, separate cell
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afferent division focused on internal
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visceral afferent
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afferent division focused on external
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sensory afferent
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First order sensory neuron is
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afferent neuron that first detects stimulus
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Second order sensory neuron ____ ___ ____ ____ and is found ___ or ____
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synapses with 3rd order, medulla, spinal chord
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Third order sensory neuron ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ and is found in the ____
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sends info to cerebral cortex, thalamus
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Off response occurs in what kind of receptor?
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Phasic
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Frequency coding is ___ ___ __ __ __ __
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number of action potentials per second
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More intense the stimuli activates ____ ____ ____
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more sensory receptors
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The smaller the percepted field size, the ____ the acuity
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higher
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More overlap of neurons, the ____ the acuity
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higher
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Lateral inhibition _____ acuity
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increases
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Warm receptors respond to temp. ___ to ___
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30-43 degrees C
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Cold receptors respond to temp. ___ to ___
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35-20 decrees C
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Which are rapidly adapting and which are slowly adapting mechanoreceptors? a) Pacinian (vibration) b) Merkels disk (pressure) c) Meissner's (vibration) d) hair follicle (bending of hair) e) Free nerve endings (light touch) f) Ruffini's ending (pressure)
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a) rapidly b) slowly c) rapid d) rapid e) slow f) slow
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Mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors follow what path
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dorsal column medial lemniscal pathway
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Nociceptors and thermoreceptors follow what path?
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spinothalamic
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Three categories of nociceptors? Which are tonic and which are phasic?
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thermoreceptors (phasic), mechanoreceptors (phasic) and polymodal (tonic)
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Steps to pain perception
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1) nociceptor receives signal 2) sends to spinal chord via afferent neuron (1st order) 3) Signal sent to reticular formation (causing alertness) and Thalamus (2nd order caused by substance P) 4) Signal Sent to hypothalamus (emotional response) and Somatosensory cortex (3rd order)
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Which pain (fast or slow) is carried by myelinated fibers?
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fast
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Which pain (fast or slow) is poorly localized?
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slow
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Which pain (fast or slow) produces sharp and prickly sensations
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fast
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Presence of prostaglandins enhances or inhibits pain?
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enhances
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What does tylenol do?
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Decreases prostaglandin levels
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Do nociceptors adapt?
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No
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What type of receptors does the analgesic system depend on?
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Opiate (endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphin
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What are the photoreceptors of the eye called? Which is more sensitive and why?
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Rods and Cones, Rod, more disks
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Which photoreceptor is for bright light vision?
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Cones
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Which segment of the photoreceptors holds the nucleus
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Inner segment
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Where is the neurotransmitter released (on the photoreceptors)? Where are the neurotransmitters being sent?
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Synaptic terminal, bipolar cells
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What type of opsin/pigment is in rods? cones?
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black and white, color vision (red, green or blue)
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In the dark, ___ is associated with rhodopsin
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retinal
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Association of retinal and rhodopsin ____ ____ that opens ____ channels and ____ the rod and causes it to release ____
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sends signal, sodium, depolarizes, neurotransmitters
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In the dark, our rods and codes are sending signal to ____ cells
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bipolar
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When rods and cones are sending the signal, bipolar cells ___ send signal, when rods and cones stop sending the signal, bipolar cells ____ sending signal then what happens?
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don't, start, ganglion fire action potential
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in the light, retinal _____ from rhodopsin, this ___ the signal, ___ the ___ channels, causes bipolar cells to ____ signal
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disassociates, stops, closes, sodium, complete
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___ are for night vision
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Rods
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____ have low sensitivity to light
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Cones
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____ million rods per retina, ____ million cones per retina
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100, 3
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___ have high acuity, ___ have low acuity
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rods, cones
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sight of greatest concentration for rods is
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periphery
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sight of greatest concentration for rods is
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fovea
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____ rods converging to one bipolar cell
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many
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____ cones converging to one bipolar cell
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few/one
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___ do not adapt (rods/cones) why?
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cones, only function in light
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for small changes in light intensity, you could do 2 things:
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Pupillary dilation and constriction
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Larger changes in light intensity require
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Changes in photopigment (rhodopsin in rods)
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Exposure to light, ____ rods which means cones have __ ___ and rods are ____
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bleaches, taken over, nonfunctional
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When you move into dark from light, retinal and opsin _____
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re-associate
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When you move into light from dark, rods become ___ because they are ____
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overwhelmed, sensitive to light
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With vision, there is no synapse occuring in the ____ ____ because the retina is considered ____
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brain stem, part of the CNS
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With vision, action potential is fired from ____ to ____ then directly to ____
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retina, thalamus, cortex
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neural perception of sound energy is called
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hearing
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hearing involves two things, ___ and ___
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WHERE a sound is coming from and WHAT the sound is
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Frequency of sound wave is ___. What is dependent on frequency?
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the number of waves per second, pitch/tone of sound (high or low note)
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Amplitude of sound wave is ___. what is dependent on amplitude?
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peak to valley, intensity (loud or soft note)
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3 parts of ear
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Inner ear, middle ear, external ear
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What is the function of the inner ear? middle ear? external ear?
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conversion of sound waves & equilibrium, transmits & amplifies, localize direction of waves
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What part of inner ear contains mechanoreceptors that convert sound to nerve impulses?
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cochlea
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What part of inner ear is responsible for equilibrium?
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vestibular apparatus
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Three steps of sound amplification
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sound waves strike tympanic membrane, causes movement of ossicles, causes movement of oval window
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What are the mechanoreceptors of the ear?
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hair cells
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Three membranes of the cochlea
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basilar, tectorial, vestibular
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Each hair cell has a ________ associated with it
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afferent neuron
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stereocilia are oriented
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short to tall
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What is the ECF of the ear? What is it really high in?
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endolymph, K+
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Do hair cells regenerate?
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no
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stereocilia are connected by
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protein bridges
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When stereocilia bend to the tall, what happens
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channels open -> depolarization
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When stereocilia bend to the short, what happens
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channels close -> hyperpolarization
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When does more K+ and Ca+ come into the hair cell? This causes ____ frequency action potentials
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When it is bent to the tall, higher
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The louder the sound, the ____ the stereocilia bend and the ____ the change in the frequency
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more, greater
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Loudness is coded for by ____ ____ _____
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Action potential frequency
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Pitch is coded for by ___ ___ ___ ____ ____
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what hair cells change frequency
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High or low acuity in hair cells?
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high
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vestibular apparatus consists of: (2)
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semicircular canals, utricle and saccule
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What detects rotational acceleration
or deceleration in any direction |
semicircular canals
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What detects changes in rate of linear movement in any direction and position of head in gravity?
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utricle and saccule
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Sections of semicircular canal
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anterior, posterior, lateral
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anterior detects movement of head
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up or down
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posterior detects movement of head
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up and down to the side
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lateral detects movement of head
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side to side
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What are the receptors for taste and smell?
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chemoreceptors
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Where are the chemoreceptors housed?
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taste buds
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What are the 5 primary tastes?
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salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami
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Salty is stimulated by ___ , sour is stimulated by ____, sweet is stimulated by ____ , bitter is stimulated by ____ , umami is stimulated by ____
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NaCl, acids (H+), glucose, more chemically diverse, meat/savory
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Steps for sour taste
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H+ ion blocks K+ channels, causes cell to depolarize, causes Ca+ to come in, sends neurotransmitter
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Steps for salt taste
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Na comes in, causes cell to depolarize, causes Ca+ to come in, neurotransmitter released, action potential fired
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Where does the neural pathway for taste end?
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gustatory cortex in somatosensory
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Which sense goes directly to brain?
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olfactory
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To be smelled, a substance must be
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volatile, water soluble
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What forms the olfactory tract?
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2nd order neurons
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3 types of muscles
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skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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what are the functions of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle. are they each voluntary or involuntary
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skeletal: body movement, voluntary cardiac: pump blood,involuntary smooth: move material in and out body,involuntary
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Can skeletal muscles push?
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No, only pull
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Origin of skeletal muscle
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attachment to stationary bone
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insertion of skeletal muscle
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attachment to moveable bone
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what are myofibrils made of?
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protein
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what is the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber? what about cytoplasm?
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sarcolemma, sarcoplasm
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum has really high levels of
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Ca+
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What can myosin bind to?
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ATP and Actin
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attachment site for thin filaments
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Z disc
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region occupied only by thin filaments
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I band
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entire length of thick filaments
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A band
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center of A band where only thick filaments
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H zone
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attachment site for thick filaments
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M line
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Muscle contracts because ____ ____
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Sarcomere shortens
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Sarcomere shortens because ____
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myosin pulls actin towards m line
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As long as calcium (and ATP) is present, ____ will not cover ____ ____ and ____ ____ ____ will occur
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tropomyosin, binding site, cross bridge cycling
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2 main types of muscle contractions and describe
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isotonic: contraction creates force and causes movement, isometric: contraction creates force without causing movement
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strength of muscle contractions are effected by:
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Number of muscle fibers stimulated, –Frequency of stimulation, –Initial length of muscle fibers
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Muscle completely relaxes between contractions
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twitch
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Muscle doesn’t relax before second stimulation and contraction becomes stronger
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summation
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Muscle doesn’t relax between numerous stimulations and a sustained contraction occurs
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tetanus
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quick energy requires
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Quick energy –anaerobic glycolysis
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slow energy requires
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aerobic metabolism
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3 types of fibers based on contraction speed and resistance to fatigue
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fast-twitch glycolytic, –fast-twitch oxidative, –slow-twitch oxidative
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High intensity exercises cause
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build up of lactic acid, compression of blood vessels, depletion of Ach
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Low intensity exercises cause
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depletion of energy reserves
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What is the central fatigue
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psychological
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The ___ in the brainstem contains synapses with sensory afferent neurons and 2nd order neurons going to the thalamus and therefore help integrate incoming sensory informaiton
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reticular formation
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