Zoo Test 2

Front 1

myofibre

Back 1

myotube in development

Front 2

myocyte

Back 2

myoblast in development

cell in muscle

Front 3

location of actin and myosin?

Back 3

cytoplasm

Front 4

3 types of muscle

Back 4

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

*tendons are continuous with the outer coating

Front 5

epimysium

Back 5

the whole skeletal muscle is wrapped in this

(outside layer?)

Front 6

fascicle

Back 6

a small bundle of muscle or nerve fibers

bound together by connective tissue

outermost layer of skeletal muscle

Front 7

perimysium

Back 7

connective tissue that groups fibers into a fascicle

'middle layer of skeletal muscle'

Front 8

endomysium

Back 8

inner most layer of skeletal muscle

binds muscle fibers together to form a fascicle

Front 9

characteristics of skeletal muscle fibers (4)

Back 9

1. large (.1-.5 mm diameter, 1cm++length)
2) multinucleate (100s of nuclei)
3) peripheraly located nuclei
4) striated

**cells fuse together and make one multinucleated cell

Front 10

syncytium

Back 10

multiple cells coming together and maintaining nuclei

-skeletal muscle

Front 11

where is the sarcomeric organization of muscle fibers in a cell?

Back 11

cytoplasm

-cytoplasm has parallel striations from top to bottom

Front 12

A band

Back 12

anisotropic

Front 13

I band

Back 13

isotropic

Front 14

M line

Back 14

thin line down the muscle

-extra proteins down middle of M line

Front 15

sarcomere

Back 15

basic contractile unit of piece of muscle

Front 16

Z line

Back 16

form left and right hand edge of one sarcomere

Front 17

where is the thin actin filament attached to?

Back 17

Z line

Front 18

sliding filament hypothesis

Back 18

sucker walk along actin and the myosin moves

ATP hydrolysis causes flexing of cross-bridges

Front 19

motor end plate

Back 19

end plate where all the synapses are

motor bc muscle motor neurons

Front 20

how many muscle fibers can one motor neuron innervate?

Back 20

a few to thousands

Front 21

what is the stimulus for a skeletal muscle to contract?

Back 21

motor neuron

Front 22

T-tubule

Back 22

channel system in skeletal muscle

signal down from outside and traverses to cysteinine?

Front 23

triad

Back 23

skeletal muscle

T-tubule channel system

is at every sarcomere, and is the recipient

Front 24

action potentials in sarcomeres

Back 24

action potential from the end plate gets to every sarcomere in T-tubule syste, Ca releases, acts on actin to allow cross-bridges

vessicles are the receptors telling you to fire action potential

Front 25

ATP for contractions from??

Back 25

mitochondria

Front 26

damaged skeletal muscle

Back 26

bust open cell and all myofibrils bust out

cell can never recover

Front 27

satellite cells

Back 27

for regeneration and repair

"stem cells of muscles"

divide and replace dead myofibers

Front 28

organization of muscles (skeletal)

Back 28

epimysium-tendon-perimysium (inner)

usually arranged in antagonistic groups of flexors and extensors

Front 29

muscle origin

Back 29

origin is proximal

origin doesn't move

top of muscle; where attaches

Front 30

muscle insertion

Back 30

insertion is distal

insertion usually moves

bottom of muscle

Front 31

isotonic

Back 31

shortening of muscle against constant load

mode of contraction

Front 32

isometric

Back 32

mode of contraction

tension develops but little movement

constant load but no movement

Front 33

flexion

Back 33

movement that brings a distal limb segment toward the next proximal segment, advances a limb at the shoulder or hip, or bends the head or a part of the trunk toward the midventral line

opposite of extension

eg elbow, hand

Front 34

extension

Back 34

movement that carries a distal limb segment away from the next proximal segment, retracts a limb at the shoulder or hip, or moves the head or a part of the trunk toward the mid-dorsal line

opposite of flexion

eg, elbow, hand

Front 35

protraction

Back 35

muscle contraction that moves the entire appendage of a quadruped forward

opposite of retraction

eg shoulder, thigh (take a step)

Front 36

retraction

Back 36

action that moves the entire appendage of a quadruped backward

opposite of protraction
eg shoulder, thigh

Front 37

adduction

Back 37

moves a structure toward the midventral line of the body

eg leg

ADD

Front 38

abduction

Back 38

moves a structure away from the midventral line of the body

Front 39

rotation

Back 39

eg foot

Front 40

pronation

Back 40

palm down

Front 41

supination

Back 41

palm down

Front 42

elasticity

Back 42

connective tissue components of skeletal muscle

Front 43

types of architecture for skeletal muscle (4)

Back 43

1. strap
2. fusiform
3. unipennate
4. bipennate

*can only contract about third of length

Front 44

strap and fusiform muscles

Back 44

skeletal muscles

biceps and triceps

have longer fibers so longer contractions

Front 45

pennate muscles

Back 45

more force due to connective tissue elasticity and more myofilaments in a fiber

*chevron shape

Front 46

muscle fiber types

Back 46

1. twitch (phasic muscles) (slow and fast twitch)
2. tonic muscles

Front 47

twitch muscles

Back 47

1 muscle fiber - 1 motor end plate. all or none, most muscles

*when get action potentials, immediately contract

type 1: slow
type 2: fast

skeletal muscles

Front 48

tonic mucles

Back 48

skeletal muscles

-1 muscle fiber-multiple end plates.
-More action potentials, more contraction.
-Small muscles,
-don't fatigue
-eye

-rare in mammals
-only in eye muscles
-contract as receive more action potentials, slowly contract more as receive more action potentials

Front 49

Type I twitch muscles (slow)

Back 49

-rich vascular
- high myoglobin content
-oxidative (uses lots of oxygen)
-mitochondria
-red (bc myoglobin)

eg postural muscles, resistant to fatigue

eg dark meat of chicken leg, dark band on fish

Front 50

Type II twitch muscles (fast)

Back 50

-anaerobic by glycolysis
-fewer capillaries
-fast-twitch
-white in color
-fatigue
-don't use oxygen energy as much

eg bursting movement, biceps, triceps

eg white meat on chicken breast, light meat on fish

*majority of muscles on fish

Front 51

muscles are from what part of the embryo?

Back 51

mesoderm

Front 52

somitic myotomes turn into

Back 52

somatic muscles

Front 53

splanchnic mesoderm turn into

Back 53

visceral muscles

Front 54

origin of gut muscle

Back 54

splanchnic muscle

mesoderm

Front 55

myotome

Back 55

a muscle segment, usually applied to embryonic segments

Front 56

where are head muscles from?

Back 56

head paraxial mesoderm

Front 57

paraxial mesoderm

Back 57

that portion of the mesoderm that lies just lateral to the neural tube, differentiates into somites in the trunk and caudal part of the head and into somitomeres more rostrally

Front 58

extrinsic ocular muscles

Back 58

the group of small muscles that extend from the wall of the orbit to the eyeball and control the movements of the eyeball

Front 59

where are skeletal muscle nuclei located?

Back 59

peripherally located nuclei

Front 60

characteristics of cardiac muscle (6)

Back 60

1. 1 or 2 nuclei
2. centrally located nucleus
3. striated
4. branched cells
5. intercalated discs
6. huge numbers of mitochondria (.:. need lots of ATP)

Front 61

where does cardiac muscle come from?

Back 61

in embryo...cardiogenic mesenchyme

Front 62

intercalated disks

Back 62

separating adjacent cells in cardiac muscle fibers. Intercalated discs support synchronized contraction of cardiac tissue.

junction b/t 2 cardiac musc

Front 63

cardiac muscles have no distinct what?

Back 63

myofibrils

Front 64

z line connects

Back 64

two sarcomeres together (in cardiac muscle)

Front 65

I bands

Back 65

The I bands appear lighter because these regions of the sarcomere mainly contain the thin actin filaments, whose smaller diameter allows the passage of light between them

Front 66

T-tubule of cardiac muscle

Back 66

composed of a T-tubule and a single terminal cisterna; it occurs at the Z line.

way to get Ca signal to move to contract sarcomere

signal=release of Ca

Front 67

function of intercalated disks

Back 67

provide electrical coupling
-adheres junctions and desmosomes for actin adhesion, gap junctions for electrical coupling

*rapidly spread electrical impulse

Front 68

gap junction allows

Back 68

rapid signaling of cells (ions pass thru fast)

Front 69

heart contraction initiated at...

Back 69

sinoatrial node (SA node) (pacemaker)

Front 70

full course of heart contraction

Back 70

-contraction initiated at SA node (pacemaker)
-the at the atrioventricular node (AV node)
-then into Purkinje fibers

*ensures correct spread of fibers

Front 71

characteristics of smooth muscle (5)

Back 71

1. no striations
2. single nucleus
3. central nucleus
4. form sheets (huge muscle bands) (eg gut)
5. or single cells (myoepithelial cells)

Front 72

myoepithelial cells

Back 72

most glands have these (smooth muscles) that contract to help push out excretions

*elongated epithelial cells with contractile properties

Front 73

smooth muscle contractions

Back 73

very slow..hours or days

responds to nerves, hormones, local concentrations of blood gases

actin and myosin used for contraction but not arranged in sarcomeres

Front 74

how does Ca enter smooth muscles?

Back 74

caveoli in plasma membrane (not t-tubules like cardiac and skeletal)

Ca regulates actin/myosin interaction

Front 75

smooth muscles linked together by

Back 75

gap junctions to co-ordinate response

activated by autonomic nervous system or hormones

Front 76

almost all vertebrates have these 6 extrinsic ocular muscles

Back 76

1. dorsal oblique (IV)
2. ventral oblique (III)
3. ventral rectus (III)
4. lateral rectus (VI)
5. dorsal rectus (III)
6. medial rectus (III)

Front 77

which eye muscles innervated by CN (cranial nerve) III?

Back 77

ventral oblique
ventral rectus
medial rectus
dorsal rectus

*occulomotor

Front 78

oculomoter nerve

Back 78

the third cranial nerve, which innervates mot of the extrinsic muscles of the eyeball and carries autonomic fibers into the eyeball

Front 79

which eye muscles innervated by CN IV?

Back 79

dorsal oblique

*trochlear

Front 80

trochlear nerve

Back 80

the fourth cranial nerve, which innervates the superior oblique muscle; the mammalian muscle passes through a connective tissue pulley before inserting on the eyeball

Front 81

which eye muscles innervated by CN VI?

Back 81

lateral rectus

*abducens

Front 82

abducens nerve

Back 82

the nerve that innervates the lateral rectus muscle of he eyeball; cranial nerve 6

Front 83

some tetrapods also have this occulomotor muscle

Back 83

retractor bulbi

Front 84

birds also have these occulomotor muscles

Back 84

levator palperbrae superioris, depressor palpebrae inferioris

Front 85

mammals only have..

Back 85

superioris

Front 86

muscles from brachiomere 1 (mandibular) (5)

Back 86

1. adductor mandibular
2. levator palatoquadrati
3. spiracularis
4.preorbitalis
5. intermandibularis

Front 87

muscles from brachiomere 1 innervated by..

Back 87

trigeminal nerve (5th cranial nerve)

Front 88

muscles from brachiomere 1 associated with..

Back 88

jaw closing in gnathostomes

Front 89

adductor mandibulae function

Back 89

huge, closes jaw (palato to meckel)

from brachiomere 1

Front 90

levator palatoquadrati function

Back 90

from brachiomere 1

lifts palatoquadrate during prey capture (otic cap to palato)

Front 91

spiracularis function

Back 91

from brachiomere 1

controls spiracle (otic cap to palato)

Front 92

preorbitalis function

Back 92

from brachiomere 1

closes jaw (chondrocran to meckel)

Front 93

intermandibularis function

Back 93

from brachiomere 1

constricts throat (meckel to mid vent)

Front 94

what muscles retained for kinetic skulls?

Back 94

levator pterygoidei
protractor pterygoidei

Front 95

intermandibularis in amphibians becomes what 2 muscles in mammals?

Back 95

mylohyoideus
anterior digastric


*intermandibulairs in amph used for air pumping

Front 96

adductor mandibulae of sharks and amphibians/reptiles becomes what in mammals?

Back 96

temporalis
masseter
pterygoideus
tensor tympani
tensor veli palati

Front 97

spiracularis and preorbitalis of sharks become what in amphibians and mammals?

Back 97

nothing!

Front 98

where do all mandibular muscles insert?

Back 98

lower jaw (dentary bone)

Front 99

tensor tympani

Back 99

part of adductor complex remains attached to the ear derivative of quadrate/articular and goes with it

Front 100

superficial jaw muscles (of didelphis) (diagram)

Back 100

temporalis, digastric, masseter

Front 101

deeper jaw muscles of dedelphis (diagram)

Back 101

pterygoideus
digastric

Front 102

muscles from brachiomere 2 (3) (hyoid)

Back 102

1. levator hyomandibulae
2. dorsal and ventral hyoid constrictor
3. intermandibularis

*all associated with acting on gill puches
*mammals dont have (vanished)

Front 103

muscles from brachiomere 2 innervated by?

Back 103

facial nerve (6th cranial nerve)

Front 104

levator hyomandibulae

Back 104

from brachiomere 2 hyoid

compresses gill pouches (otic to hyomandib cartilage)

Front 105

dorsal and ventral hyoid constrictor

Back 105

from brachiomere 2 hyoid

compresses gill pouches (part of levator hyomandibulae)

Front 106

intermandibularis

Back 106

from brachiomere 2 hyoid

compresses gill pouches (dorsal to intermandibularis)

Front 107

new muscle in tetrapods that depresses lower jaw

Back 107

depressor mandibuli

Front 108

in mammals, digastric replaces what?

Back 108

mandibulae

Front 109

what are the remnants of interhyoideus in mammals?

Back 109

stylohyoid
stapedius

Front 110

what are the largest remnanats of ventral hyoid muscles in mammals?

Back 110

platysma and facial muscles

*extremely important set of muscles involved in communication, defense, suckling

Front 111

muscles from brachiomere 3-7 innervated by

Back 111

glossopharyngeal nerve (9th cranial nerve) and vagus nerve (10th cranial nerve)

Front 112

muscles from brachiomere 3-7 (4)

Back 112

1. cucularis
2. dorsal and ventral superficial constrictors
3. interacuals, branchial adductor
4. interbranchials

Front 113

cucularis

Back 113

from brachiomere 3-7

formed by fusion of levators of arches 3-7 (posterior levator to scapular process)

elevates scapular process

*one muscle spans across shark's back

Front 114

interarcuals, branchial adductor

Back 114

from brachiomere 3-7

pull gills anteriorly, adducts gill

fan shaped, and the muscle between each ray, run between 2 gill rays and connect together

Front 115

interbranchials

Back 115

from brachiomere 3-7

adducts

Front 116

cucularis becomes what in mammasl?

Back 116

sternocleidomastoid and trapezius

**used for shoulder and head

Front 117

interarcuals become what im mammals?

Back 117

muscles of pharynx wall and intrinsic larynx

Front 118

hypobranchial muscles consist of..

Back 118

the rest of the muscle before get to axial skeleton

invaders from behind the branchial region

muscles located ventral to the gills

Front 119

in mammals, hypobranchial muscles are associated with...

Back 119

the tongue

Front 120

epaxial

Back 120

upper half of each segment

pertaining to structures that lie above or beside the vertebral axis

Front 121

hypaxial

Back 121

bottom half of each segment

pertaining to structures that lie ventral to the veterbral axis

Front 122

horizontal septum

Back 122

divides epaxial and hypaxial

gives a double chevron shape (trunk of fish)

Front 123

myoseptum

Back 123

a connective tissue septum between myomeres

Front 124

myomere

Back 124

a muscle segment, usually applied ot adult segments

Front 125

overlap of fish trunk muscles ensures...

Back 125

smooth undulations`

Front 126

exotendon

Back 126

large group of extracellular muscle

transfers energy to tail and stores energy when stretched

trunk musc of fish

Front 127

slow oxidative muscle fibers

Back 127

the triangle shape of hypaxial muscles on the edge

-doesn't fatigue
-fish always undulating
-when sitting, feeding, use slow muscle fibers

**all other muscles work when fish needs to move fast

fish trunk muscles

Front 128

fast oxidative muscle fibers

Back 128

work when fish need to move fast

fish trunk muscles

Front 129

segments of salamanders and reptiles trunk

Back 129

body still retains importance in locomotion so trunk remains segmented into myomeres

Front 130

what is segmented body used for?

Back 130

locomotion

most is w/ epaxial muscles

Front 131

2 epaxial muscle groups of tetrapods

Back 131

1. dorsalis trunci
2. interspinalis

*hypaxial muscles completely lost their function

Front 132

dorsalis trunci

Back 132

muscle group of tetrapod epaxial muscles

remain segmented, large and bulky

Front 133

interspinalis

Back 133

muscle group of tetrapod epaxial muscles

deep, connect adjacent vertebrae, join across group of vertebrae

Front 134

hypaxial muscles of tetrapods turn into..

Back 134

from a single group to 4 or 5 groups in layers

then from segments to layers

*no traces of segmentation

Front 135

why is segmentation lost in birds and mammals?

Back 135

-locomotion is less important
-need to support the body
-need to mediate spine movements
-need to move head
-need to ventilate lungs

Front 136

epaxial muscles of birds and mammals (3)

Back 136

1. transversospinalis
2. longissimus dorsi
3. iliocostalis

*3 groups of muscles (from outer surface to inner surface)

Front 137

transversospinalis

Back 137

epaxial muscle group of birds/mammals

shorter between several segments

span 2 or 3 vertebrae and bind together

Front 138

longissimus dorsi

Back 138

epaxial muscle group of birds/mammals

from sacrum (pelvis) to neck

Front 139

iliocostalis

Back 139

epaxial muscle group of birds/mammals

from sacrum and pelvis to ribs

Front 140

hypaxial muscle groups of mammals (3)

Back 140

1. subvertebral group
2. ventral
3. lateral group 3 or 4 layers

*hypaxial muscles mostly seen in humans

Front 141

subvertebral group

Back 141

hypaxial muscle group in mammals

deep, quadratus lumborum

deep group underneath vertebrae

Front 142

ventral (hypax muscle grp)

Back 142

hypaxial muscle group in mammals

rectus abdominus

connective tissue slits divide into 3 parts (aka the 6 pack)

Front 143

lateral group 3 or 4 layers

Back 143

hypaxial muscle group in mammals

external oblique
internal oblique
transversus abdominis + intercostals

hold abdominal contents together

go in overlapping layers
--internal =90 degrees
--most internal = trnasverse across body

Front 144

fins function

Back 144

NOT FOR PROPULSION!

used in lift, stability, braking, maneuvering

Front 145

where does propulsive power come from? (in fish)

Back 145

tail

Front 146

appendicular skeleton of a fin and group of muscles on it and where they are attached

Back 146

dorsal muscle (extensors)
ventral muscles (flexors)

attach to pectoral girdle (so fin can move up and down)

Front 147

limb purpose of tetrapods/mammals

Back 147

-support body
-major propulsive force
(for locomotion and support)

*early tetrapods had huge muscle mass for supporting)

*often major muscle mass of body

Front 148

dorsal muscles function with limbs

Back 148

extensors, also abductors

Front 149

ventral muscles function with limbs

Back 149

flexors, also adductors

*underneath limb buds

Front 150

why more muscles in mammals?

Back 150

fine movements we do

muscles are much thinner and more precise

mammals lost some power in some muscles

Front 151

the splayed position of reptiles required what?

Back 151

powerful adductors

because of more erect limbs in mammals these ventral adductors are not longer requires

Front 152

agility of movement...

Back 152

means both dorsal and ventral muscles have multiplied and subdivided

Front 153

muscles associated with scapula in tetrapods/mammals are really...

Back 153

are really branchiomeric muscles, evolved from cucullaris

Front 154

appendicular muscles are

Back 154

dorsal and ventral groups

Front 155

who is jawless and filter feeders?

Back 155

tunicates, cephalochordates, lamprey larvae

Front 156

who has an oral cavity?

Back 156

all craniates

*what it does depends on what foods it eats

Front 157

filter feeding mechanism

Back 157

water drawn in by cilia, expansion of buccal cavity, etc

food particles are trapped in mucus and the mucus moves (it) down to the gut by ciliary action

Front 158

jawed fish are either...

Back 158

suction feeders(mostly)-create suction in oral cavity and draw and suck in

or

ram feeders (overtake prey with mouth open)- swim and grab prey

Front 159

primative capture

Back 159

combination of suction and ram feeding

eg sharks

Front 160

for fish to open jaw, these muscles work..

Back 160

-epaxial muscles lift head
-hypaxial, hyoid, and mandibular muscles

Front 161

lower jaw produces what when opening mouth?

Back 161

enormous gape

Front 162

some enlargement of pharynx in fish when opening jaw produces what?

Back 162

suction

Front 163

only moving parts of fish mouth

Back 163

first and second arch derivatives (mandibular and hyoid)

Front 164

3 muscles that open the lower jaw and provide a little suction in jawed fish

Back 164

1.coracomandibularis
2. rectus cervicis
3. hypaxial muscles

Front 165

most important part of jaw closing in fish

Back 165

adduction of mandible

*upper jaw loosely attached (only by ligament) so can move

Front 166

suction feeders (eg bony fish) special features for opening mouth

Back 166

-huge dermal plates are flexible and moveable

-increase in number and motility of bony elements

-kinetic skull-all the elements move to rapidly expand the pharynx and generate great suction force

Front 167

suction feeders (eg bony fish) mechanism for opening mouth

Back 167

-epaxial muscles lift head up
-opercular muscles lifts up operculum
-3 sets of muscles open jaw
-maxilla moves foreward
-premaxilla moves out and forward
-mandible moves down

Front 168

inertial feeding

Back 168

how terrestrial verts eat

capture prey and keep snapping to gradually move it back into throat

no water ot suck in, coordinated movements of mandible and tongue replace water flow

many primitive terrestrial verts

some use tongue and they all swallow food whole or in large pieces - kinetic skulls

Front 169

pterygoid forward

Back 169

jaw lifts up

Front 170

in terrest. vert, movement of jaw opening takes place at

Back 170

transverse joint

Front 171

most flexible skulls

Back 171

snakes

Front 172

what moves to generate jaw opening?

Back 172

squamosal and quadrate

Front 173

cranial kinesis in birds allows

Back 173

a good repertoire of abilities for different foods, shock absorption for woodpeckers

Front 174

feeding cycle consists of 4 stages:

Back 174

in all terrestrial verts (including amph, reptiles, birds, mammals)

1. slow opening
2. fast opening
3. fast closing
4.slow closing/power stroke

cycle begins w/ slow opening of mandible

Front 175

slow opening

Back 175

1st stage kinetic skulls: snout lifts up in relation to brain case via transverse hinge

Front 176

fast opening

Back 176

2nd stage

sudden and rapid opening of the mouth to maximum gape

Front 177

fast closing

Back 177

3rd stage

mandible is lifted and the gape decreases rapidly

Front 178

slow closing/power stroke

Back 178

4th stage

snout is depressed, produces a strong bite

Front 179

new muscles in mammal mouth opening (non kinetic skulls)

Back 179

digastric (opening)
temporalis (closing)

only lower jaw joing moves

Front 180

new movements in mammal mouth opening (non kinetic skulls)

Back 180

grinding, cutting (depending on herb or carn)

Front 181

masseter of mammals

Back 181

move jaw and grind food (instead of cutting)

Front 182

some tetrapods that went back to suspension feeding

Back 182

basking sharks
manta rays
ducks
flamingos
baleen whales

Front 183

muscular tongue

Back 183

very important for moving and swallowing food

tetrapods

derived from several areas of floor of pharynx

often rough (cats)

often used in food gathering(fromgs, salamanders, lizards, anteaters)

Front 184

rough tongue purpose (eg cats)

Back 184

keratinized region of stratum corneum

keep food in place and move backwards

Front 185

"outside in" theory

Back 185

similarity to scales of sharks and placoderms had dentine-like scales led to suggestion of teeth from scales

but presence of pharyngeal teeth in teleosts and discovery of pharyngeal teeth in jawless vertebrate fossils suggests "inside out" theory

Front 186

teeth as fossils

Back 186

excellent as fossils

Front 187

development of teeth

Back 187

very similar to hair, etc

evolved from dermal scales from outside-in theory

teleosts-no teeth in OC...in pharyngeal

Front 188

tooth development

Back 188

neural crest cells, remarkably similar to bony scales and even hairs and feathers

develop along ridge of jaw and align where epithelium thicken

Front 189

odontoblasts cells from

Back 189

neural crest

Front 190

ameloblast cells from

Back 190

epithelium

Front 191

neural crest cells of teeth

Back 191

teeth from neural crest

teeto from top of neural tube

Front 192

cap stage

Back 192

tooth development

epithelium swollen in cap

Front 193

bell stage

Back 193

tooth development

shape of bell

Front 194

adult teeth kept in place by

Back 194

cement and/or periodontal ligament

sits in jaw b/c of secretion of cement and stays in b/c of periodontal ligament

important sensory part of tooth (ligament)

Front 195

important sensory part of tooth

Back 195

periodontal ligament

(holds tooth in)

Front 196

polyphyodont

Back 196

most verts

new tooth develops under old one

many successive sets of teeth

Front 197

diphyodont

Back 197

most mammals

2 sets of teeth only

Front 198

monophyodont

Back 198

toothed whales

1 set of teeth only

Front 199

sets of teeth..

Back 199

"phyodont"

Front 200

tooth attachment

Back 200

"odont"

Front 201

acrodont

Back 201

sit on top of jaw

Front 202

thecodont

Back 202

sits in deep/pocket

Front 203

pleurodont

Back 203

tooth loosely attached to the outside edge of the jaw

Front 204

dental formula

Back 204

I 2/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3

first #=# teeth above
second #= # teeth below

human formula

Front 205

incisors

Back 205

cutting, cropping and picking up

specialized in rodents, endmale on front surface, continually grows, filed down by eating

tusks are highly modifed incisors

Front 206

diastemous

Back 206

gap of missing teeth (eg mouse)

Front 207

canines

Back 207

seizing piercing and killing, especially in carnivores

herbivore not use for grabbing so use for defense

Front 208

premolars/molars

Back 208

combined cutting and crushing, most complex and variable

have 2 or more roots and crown has cusps and crests

Front 209

first mammals had how many cusps premolars/molars?

Back 209

3 in linear sequence

Front 210

symmetrodont

Back 210

early mammal pre/molars that became triabngular and the number of cutting surfaces decreasaed

Front 211

tribosphenic

Back 211

teeth of mammals that were triangular with extra cusps

Front 212

bunodont

Back 212

teeth of mammals that became square (b/c have 4 cusps)

much better for crushing and grinding action for ombnivores and herbivores

no sharp cones, are low hillocks

Front 213

lophodont

Back 213

cusps have united to form ridges

in specialized herbivores (elephants, rodents, horses, rhinos)

form ridges of lophs

premolars have become molars

Front 214

selenodont

Back 214

molars

crescent shaped cusps

in specialized herbivores (elephants, rodents, horses, rhinos)

cusps formed together

Front 215

do fish have oral glands?

Back 215

no, except for occasional mucus secreting cells

Front 216

do lampreys have oral glands?

Back 216

they have a pair of glands that secrete anti-coagulant

Front 217

salivary glands

Back 217

modified in some snakes to produce neurotoxins and vampire bats to produce anticoagulants

Front 218

saliva

Back 218

produced by salivary glands

lubricates, moistens, begins digestion (a-amylase), antiseptic (IgA, lysozyme)

Front 219

how does lamprey feed?

Back 219

clamp on victim w/ dental scales, rasp bleeds and drink blood

*glands secrete anti-coagulant

Front 220

mandibular gland

Back 220

a mammalian salivary gland that is located near the caudal end of hte mandible, or lower jaw

sits under tongue

Front 221

3 glands in mammalian oral cavity

Back 221

mandibular gland
sublingual gland
parotid gland

Front 222

parotid gland

Back 222

a mammalian salivary gland located caudal to the ear

Front 223

parotid gland is located by

Back 223

out on the masseter muscle

Front 224

some mammalian species also have

Back 224

zygomatic, buccal, molar glands

Front 225

what kind of ducts does salivary glands have?

Back 225

exocrine

Front 226

what kind of secretion are salivary glands?

Back 226

merocrine (put secretion in packet and exocytose)

Front 227

2 cell types of salivary glands

Back 227

serous cell

mucus cell

Front 228

serous cell

Back 228

salivary gland

dark staining, produces a watery, thin secretion

Front 229

mucus cell

Back 229

salivary gland

pale staining, proudces a think secretion

Front 230

gut comes from

Back 230

endoderm (underlying thin layer)

Front 231

endodermal lining

Back 231

tube of endoderm that forms gut

Front 232

coelom

Back 232

a body cavity that is completely lined by an epithelium of mesodermal derivation

forms peritoneal cavity

Front 233

in developing embryo, the yellow hollow tube (dig sys) goes all the way to cloaca, what are the 2 branches and 3 primary regions?

Back 233

two branches:
-yolk sac
-allantois

3 primary regions
-foregut, midgut, hindgut

Front 234

foregut makes..

Back 234

most things:

pharynx
esophagus
duodenum
biliary apparatus
lungs
stomach
liver and pancreas (and ducts)

Front 235

gall bladder is a branch of

Back 235

the hepatic diverticulum

Front 236

pancreas arises from

Back 236

2 buds a dorsal and a ventral

ventral swings around to fuse w/ the dorsal

made from foregut

Front 237

midgut makes..

Back 237

small intestine
appendix
2/3 transverse colon (LI)
caecum
ascending colon

Front 238

midgut rotates

Back 238

almost 360 degrees

twists during devleopment

Front 239

hindgut makes..

Back 239

1/3 transverse colon
descending colon
sigmoid colon
rectum
top of anal canal

Front 240

what 2 parts is the hindgut separated into?

Back 240

allantois
anal pit

group of mesochyme cells push in and split posterior part in two seperate gut from the urogenital system

Front 241

most things we use come from what gut?

Back 241

front and mid gut

Front 242

ground plan of gut, from outer to inner

Back 242

outermost:
epidermis
lamina propria
muscuaris mucosa
connective tissue
circular smooth muscle
longitudinal smooth muscle
connective tissue
serosa

Front 243

lumen of gut

Back 243

middle of gut
epithelial layer of single epidermal cells (one row)

Front 244

lamina propria

Back 244

epidermal cells sit on this connective tissue

contains lymphoid aggregations

Front 245

mucosa layer of gut contains

Back 245

3 layers:
epidermis
lamina propria
muscuaris mucosa

Front 246

lymphoid aggregation

Back 246

in lamina propria (mucosa layer of gut)

lymph nodes

just elow the epidermis, protects from bacterial infection from stuffwe might eat

Front 247

muscularis mucosa

Back 247

in mucosa layer

below lamina propria

Front 248

submucosa composed of..

Back 248

connective tissue

located under mucosa layer (under muscuaris mucosa)

Front 249

muscularis externa composed of

Back 249

circular smooth muscle
lontitudinal smooth muscle

outside muscles

Front 250

lontitidunal smooth muscles operated by

Back 250

sympathetic nervous system

part of muscularis externa

Front 251

enteric plecus

Back 251

located in longitudinal smooth muscle of muscularis externa

lots of nervous tissue

Front 252

serosa

Back 252

thin epithelium

Front 253

esophagus function

Back 253

conduction

conduct food from pharynx to stomach, quite muscular

Front 254

crop

Back 254

in grain and seed eating birds

part of eso swells into crop

sac that serves to store and soften, produces milky secretions for young

Front 255

hoatzin

Back 255

has a fermentation chamber to break down cellulose

Front 256

eso of egg eating snakes

Back 256

eso crushes the egg

Front 257

stratified squamous epithelium

Back 257

esophagus
cornified for protection

epithelium of esophagus need to protect from hard food

has many layers

Front 258

skeletal muscle in eso

Back 258

skeletal uscle at top, mixed in the middle, smooth muscle at bottom

Front 259

submucosal glands

Back 259

for lubrication

deep in mucosa

Front 260

variation of esophagus

Back 260

is in epithelium

smooth muscle is everywhere else

top of eso starts w/ skeletal muscle b/c control action of swallowing

Front 261

stomach function

Back 261

mechanical and chemical breakdown

Front 262

who does not have a stomach?

Back 262

tunicates, amphioxux, hagfish, lamprey

*filter feeders

Front 263

intermittent feeding and stomach

Back 263

may have been primitive craniate condition and stomach evolved when feeding became intermittent (ex snakes)

Front 264

HCl in stomach could have been for?

Back 264

HCl production could have been for killing bacteria and preserving food for storage

Front 265

stomach secondarily lost in

Back 265

when food is very small particles as in lungfish, carp-like fish

Front 266

different regions of stomach

Back 266

fundus, body, pyloric sphincter

Front 267

fundus

Back 267

top part of stomach

usually filled w/ air

Front 268

pyloric sphincter

Back 268

botth part of stomach

keeps food in until it has been mechanically and chemically broken down

Front 269

stomach has 3 layers of muscularis externa

Back 269

smooth muscle w/ ridge structure - rugae

Front 270

gastric pits

Back 270

chemical part comes from indentations of epithelium

secretory

make 3 cells:
mucus cells (mucus)
parietal cells (0,1 M HCl)
peptic cells (pepsin)

Front 271

what pH does pepsin work at?

Back 271

pH 4

Front 272

chitinase

Back 272

produced by amph, reptiles, birds

digests chitin (exoskeleton of bugs)

made in stomach

Front 273

renin

Back 273

curdles milk so protein can be more slowly digested

produced by young mammals (suckling milk)

Front 274

gizzard

Back 274

from posterior stomach in some fish, some reptiles and all birds

proventriculus from anterior stomach in birds

contains stones for grinding, birds have no teeth

Front 275

bird stomach divided into

Back 275

proventriculus and gizzard

Front 276

herbivores stomach/colon

Back 276

plant food is abundant, but very poor in energy and protein content, need large volumes and slow passage to digest it

Front 277

ruminants

Back 277

have large, 4 chambered stomaches

hippos, giraffes, camels

Front 278

4 regions of rumen stomach

Back 278

rumen
reticulum
omasum
abomasum

*only abomasum has glands (gastric pits?), rest have stratified squamous like eso

Front 279

when rumen eats..

Back 279

sits in stomach (~80 hrs) ferments via bacterial and protozoa

by produces are CO2 and methane

Front 280

how does rumen ferment

Back 280

bacteria and protozoa produce cellulase, ferments cellulose to organic acids CO2 and methane

147 kg methane/year

Front 281

small intestine function

Back 281

mostly digestion and absorption

Front 282

from duodenum

Back 282

bile from liver emulsifies fats
enzymes from pancreas enzymatically digest food
pH increased to 7 by glands and bile

*panc enz squirted into duo to start breaking down

Front 283

microvilli increase surface area

Back 283

villi increase surface area, microvilli increase surface area from 0.5 to 250 sq m = EQUAL TO TENNIS COURT

Front 284

enterocytes

Back 284

for absorption

dispersed b/t goblet cells

Front 285

goblet cells

Back 285

contain mucus

in lamina propria

Front 286

crypts

Back 286

stem cells

in small intes

rapid cell division of stem cells

migration of cells up from the villus from the crypts

*chemotherapy - stop division of stem cells and sloughed off

Front 287

what determines length and surface of intestine?

Back 287

degree of activity and metabolism

Front 288

spiral valve function

Back 288

in intestine

increase area and transit time to absorb more

Front 289

intestine starts to coil in

Back 289

bony fishes

Front 290

pyloric caeca

Back 290

most teleosts have

sometims with special enzymes (ex was lipase)

like hairs in outside of stomach

Front 291

first appearance of breakdown of seperate sections in intestines

Back 291

frog and land tetrapods

Front 292

endotherm intestines

Back 292

lonter intestine, more folding (lots of vili), greater energy requirements (up to 25x body length in herb mammals but 3.5x in omnivores and carnivores)

Front 293

colon of mammals function

Back 293

water recovery and storage of feces

Front 294

when food enters LI

Back 294

should already have absorbed food

not lots of villi/microvilli

absorption of wahter

storage of feces to prevent bac infection

Front 295

herbivores w/o a chambered stomach

Back 295

horse, rodents,rabbits, etc

have hindgut fermentation where the bacteria lodge

*cows are foregut fermenters

Front 296

hindgut fermentation

Back 296

less efficient than foregut fermentation (rumination and transit time 80 hrs)

only get to masticate it once (horse feces and cow dung) and transit time 48 hrs

Front 297

foregut fermenters

Back 297

have overall advantage and can survive in low quality areas

eg mountain sheep and goats and camels

better digestion than hindgut

Front 298

coprophagy

Back 298

eat their feces

smaller hindgus fermenters undergo

eat 20-60% of feces

Front 299

liver size

Back 299

largest organ in body in all vertebrates

Front 300

lobules

Back 300

"paving stones" of liver

*ONE MILLION HEPATIC LOBULES IN LIVER

Front 301

hepatic lobules structure

Back 301

have hepatic vein and 6 portal triads @ end

blood comes in with portal triad

Front 302

triad (4 components)

Back 302

-hepatic portal vein (take food away from liver ot body)
-hepatic artery (bring oxygen blood to keep cell alive)
-bile duct (store bile)
lymphatic

Front 303

internal structure of hepatic lobule

Back 303

hepatocytes in rows with sinusoids (where blood drains past) in between

Front 304

blood cell's view of a sinusoid

Back 304

gaps between the cells lining the capillary

Front 305

bile made in..

Back 305

hepatocytes

leave down bile canaliculi which are small channels between hepatocytes

Front 306

liver functions(6)

Back 306

1. exocrine (secretes bile)
2. stores carbs lipids, proteins, vitamins
3. synthesises plasma proteins, lipoproteins
4. metabolizes and detoxifies (drugs, etc)
5. destroys red blood cells and reclaims products
6. site of haematopoiesis in embryo (where blood made)

Front 307

who has pancreas?

Back 307

all craniates, but lampreys, teleoosts it is scattered in intestinal wall and mesentary

still do all same functions

Front 308

2 parts to pancreas

Back 308

*exocrine (digestion)
*endocrine (islets of langerhans)

Front 309

exocrine part of pancreas

Back 309

makes 15 enzymes for digestion

all secreted in proenzyme form and activated in duodenum

typical branched acinar structure

merocrine secretion

Front 310

centroacinar cell

Back 310

part of pancreas

secrete bicarb ions to buffer pH to 7

Front 311

structure of acinus and duct

Back 311

centroacinar cell
zymogen granules
intercalated duct
excretory duct

Front 312

islets of langerhans

Back 312

endocrine

profuse blood supply

ball of cells producing insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, VIP and PP

*rich blood supply
*makes product and put straight into blood

Front 313

products produced by islets of langerhans

Back 313

insulin
glucagon
pancreatic polypeptides (PP)
somatostatin