Zoo Final

Front 1

respiratory system relies on..

Back 1

diffusion accross a membrane, so must be thin

need a bulk flow of water or air

need pump to move blood to maintain concentration differences of fases in medium and blood

Front 2

water problems (according to marine animals)

Back 2

1. fresh water O2=6.6mL/L
salt water O3 = 5.3 mL/L

2. water much denser and viscous than air

3. CO2 (waste product) very soluble in water, but pH may decrease

3. proximity of blood and water means heat lost so same temp as environment

Front 3

tunicates, cephalochordates: respiratory system

Back 3

small and inactive so NO GILLS

body and pharynx wall serve as respiratory membranes (have pharyngeal slits, not gill slits)

Front 4

external gills

Back 4

external gills - many fihs larvae and amphibian larvae

need as animal becomes more active

Front 5

internal gills

Back 5

brachiomere components - cartilage becomes gill ray, muscle, nerve, aortic arch

Front 6

number of internal gills in:
1. osteostracan
2.lamprey
3.shark
4.teleost

Back 6

1. 15 (extinct)
2. 7
3. 6 (first is spiracle)
4. 5 (no spiracle)

numbers are variable

Front 7

lamprey gills

Back 7

pouched gills (present in internal chambers)

not visible from outside

Front 8

elasmobranchs

Back 8

septal gills (present all along the interbranchial septum...not in pouches)

gill rakers in pharynx stop food going into gills

distal tips of interbranchial septae act as valve for closing

hyoid and mandibular arches not complete slit/opening to outside

Front 9

gill rakers of elasmobranchs

Back 9

in pharynx, stop food from going into gills

Front 10

distal tips of interbranchial septae

Back 10

in elasmobranchs, act as valves for closing in respiration

Front 11

gill structure of elasmobranchs

Back 11

interbranchial septum, primary gill lamellae, secondary gill lamellae

Front 12

water flow system of elasmobranchs

Back 12

water flows opposite direction to blood = countercurrent= far more efficient than both flowing in the same direction
-up to 95% OF o2 taken up

Front 13

inspiration of elasmobranchs

Back 13

water sucked in by spiracle and mouth and generated by pharynx muscles

Front 14

expiration of elasmobranchs

Back 14

water only out through gill slits (parabranchial chambers)

not continuous, is a pulse system generated by the mouth

elastic recoil of visceral skeleton is important

fast moving sharks also use mouths

Front 15

operculum

Back 15

bony fishes
covers gills so only one external gill slit

Front 16

aseptal

Back 16

interbranchial septa reduced os gill lamellae extend freely in opercular cavity

they are much shorter and no flap going to outside

Front 17

water flow of bony fishes

Back 17

continuous

principles of water flow the same as sharks, but because of opercualr cavity water flow across gills during suction as well, result is a continuous flow of water across gills

Front 18

why good diffusion in bony fishes?

Back 18

because water:blood interface is only one cell thick

Front 19

active fish surface area vs bottom fish surface area (respiration)

Back 19

active fish 10x surface area of gills than sluggish, bottom dwellers

Front 20

pillar cells

Back 20

in the secondary lamella of bony fishes (respiration)

keep gaps (vascular channels) apart

Front 21

air and water breathers (bony fishes) found in water with...

Back 21

low oxygen content

Front 22

accessory respiratory organs

Back 22

vascular skin
modified gut
climbing perch

Front 23

vascular skin

Back 23

accessory respiratory organ

eels migrating over land

not as efficient as gills

Front 24

modified gut

Back 24

accessory respiratory organ

perches gulp air and keep it for 30 mins

Front 25

climbing perch

Back 25

accessory respiratory organ

walking catfish have dorsal outpocketing to form suprabranchial air chamber and one of the gill arches develops a vascular arborescent organ to protrude into it and make a "lung"

top of gill = flowering = air stored in adn used to respire

Front 26

bony fish respiration

Back 26

many bony fish have either lungs or swim bladders, most primitive ones have most "lung-like" structures so evolved early - freshwater stagnant habitats, periodic drying out

ex: gar, reed fish, bowfin, pirarucu (actino)

lungfish (sarco)

Front 27

pulse-pump system

Back 27

lungs expand due to force of pushing air into them from the oral cavity

Front 28

swim bladders and gar lungs developed from...

(gars, carp, perch)

Back 28

dorsal foregut

Front 29

lungs of birchirs, lungfish, developed from...

Back 29

ventral floor of foregut

so tetrapod lungs could be a primitive feature

Front 30

why lung is not a derivitive of swim bladder

Back 30

swim bladder is from the dorsal part of the gut, and lungs are from the ventral part of the gut

Front 31

pulse-pump system of lungfish

Back 31

have mixed air - typical of sarcoptyergians (lungfish)

lung lining folded to some degree ot compartmentalize for increased surface area

surfactant present - lipoprotein - acts like an anti-glue to prevent cells from sticking together

Front 32

swim bladder arose from

Back 32

primitive actinoptyergian lung

Front 33

swim bladder function

Back 33

oxygen rich water, lungs converted into buoyancy organ, but can also take up oxygen (so it is a lung as well)

arises as dorsal outgrowth

contains 80% oxygen, secreted into swim bladder from gas gland, agains pressure gradient. Walls madeof guanin plates to prevent diffusion out

Front 34

rete mirabile

Back 34

in swim bladder

acts as a countercurrent system to prevent oxygen leaving

considered to be a biological marvel

Front 35

swim bladder evolved to

Back 35

vary buoyancy

can also take up oxygen and function as a lung as well

Front 36

swim bladder mechinism

Back 36

arterial blood in with oxygen from gills

oxygen diffuses into swim bladder

oxygen into bladder itself and also transfer across into blue blood

blue goes to gas glands

Front 37

terrestrial respiration: problems

Back 37

1. lots of oxygen, but needs to be in solution to diffuse - how to keep lungs moist, air saturated with watervapor, mucous, conditions air first, not full exchange of air in a cycle
2. stop collapse of lungs-lots of internal septae, surfactant

Front 38

external nostrils and passages of amphibians

Back 38

external nostrils are valved

passages (all) lined with cilia and secretory cells which moisten and trap particles

Front 39

interior of lungs of amphbians

Back 39

surface area increased by pockets

Front 40

mechanism of respiration for amphibians

Back 40

pharynx floor lowers, air enters through nares, glottis opens, stale air out of lungs by elastic recoil, contraction of hypaxial muscles especially transversus abdominis, air mixed, nares closed, buccal cavity raised, air into lungs, repeated until lungs well inflated

Front 41

second method of respiration for amphibians

Back 41

skin

depends on dryness of skin (plethodontids lost lungs altogether)

Front 42

laryngotracheal chamber of reptiles

Back 42

they have longer neck so this chamber is longer and divides into larynx and trachea

Front 43

mode of respiration for reptiles

Back 43

ONLY lungs

skin is keratinized so no cutaneous exchange

Front 44

what appears for the first time in reptiles?

Back 44

bronchus and alveolar sacs

Front 45

reptile lungs vs apmh lungs (size)

Back 45

reptile larger and more compartmentalized. also have trachea, bronchus, alveolar sacs

Front 46

apnea

Back 46

reptiles go through this...periods of not breathing

Front 47

respiration mechanism of reptiles

Back 47

aspiration pump to draw air in, intercostal muscles abduct ribs and expand ribcage, pressure drops and air drawn in, glottis closed and air held in. Long periods of apnea

air expelled by adduction of ribs and smooth muscle in lung wall

*more efficient than buccal pump

Front 48

crocodile's unusual respiratory system

Back 48

involves diaphragmatic muscle which pulls liver down.

expulsion by contraction of ABDOMINAL flank muscles (not ribs and smooth muscle of lungs like in other reptiles)

Front 49

birds lungs vs mammals

Back 49

-small lungs (half size of mammals)
-dont change much in volume
-air sacs among viscera and bones
-total volume is 2-3x mammals

Front 50

air sacs of birds and their flow

Back 50

air sacs are not heavily vascularised, so not gas exchanging.
-unidirectional flow of air
-no mixing of stale air with new air (fresh air in @ all times)
-anterior and posterior air sacs

Front 51

most efficient respiratory system

Back 51

birds

reptiles are intermediate in complexity of lungs

Front 52

parabranch

Back 52

where oxygen is taken up into blood in birds (in respiratory labryinth)

Front 53

mechanism of air flow in birds

Back 53

trachea, primary bronchi, mesobronchus, posterior air sacs, parabronchi, capillaries, out via anterior air sacs and bronchi

Front 54

air exchange in birds

Back 54

respiratory labryinth

via cross current flow which is extremely efficient (has 6 chances to come in contact w/ blood)

thus birds can extract greater proportion of oxygen than mammals and so can live and fly at higher altitudes

Front 55

air flow of:
1. fish gills
2. avian lungs
3. mammalian lungs

Back 55

1. fish: countercurrent
2. birds: cross-current
3. mammals:uniform pool

Front 56

ventillation of birds with respect to respiration

Back 56

ventillation by rocking movements of sternum expands and compresses air sacs

-due to hinged ribs

Front 57

flight muscles help with respiration in birds

Back 57

flight muscles also cause movement of sternum, clavicle, ribs

so ventillation and flight muscles coupled and synchronous

Front 58

secondary palate

Back 58

in mammals

separation of food and respiratory passages

Front 59

nasal cavities of mammals

Back 59

large surface area and lined with mucous and cilia so air is conditioned

Front 60

stops food from going down trachea (in mammals)

Back 60

epiglottis and tongue movements

Front 61

air flow mechanism of mammals lungs

Back 61

trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

Front 62

difference between bronchi and bronchioles

Back 62

bronchi have cartilage

bronchioles have smooth muscle surrounging (no cartilage)

Front 63

all terrestrial vertebrates have what in upper respiratory tract

Back 63

ciliated cells plus mucuous producing cells

Front 64

ventillation in mammals by:

Back 64

by costal aspiration pump (involves thorax)

air moves in and out by changes in size of pleural cavity. increase by contraction of diaphragm and intercostals and clavicle and neck

Front 65

respiratory tree

Back 65

mammalian airways branch 20x which form a respiratory tree

Front 66

air diffusion in mammals

Back 66

walls become thinner and diffusion distance at end os 0.2um

air can diffuse across both surfaces of capillaries

Front 67

pneumocytes

Back 67

make surfactant

Front 68

narrowest diffusion in all verts

Back 68

mammals

Front 69

circulatory functions

Back 69

1. supply of oxygen and nutrients
2. excrete wastes
3. keep pH and osmotic balance
4. supply heat
5. communicate (hormones)
6. defend against organisms

Front 70

circulatory system components

Back 70

cardiovascular system (heart, arteries, veins, blood)
and
lymphatic vascular system (collects extravascular fluid returns it to vascular system)

Front 71

mammalian vs non-mammalian verts RBC

Back 71

mamm: not have nuclei

non-mam: have nuclei

Front 72

blood =

Back 72

plasma + cells

*is connective tissue

Front 73

5 types of white blood cells

Back 73

1. lymphocytes
2. monocytes
3. neutrophils
4. eosinophil
5. basophil

Front 74

lymphocytes

Back 74

WBC
central role in immunology

dark staining
go to lymph nodes

Front 75

monocytes

Back 75

WBC

precursors of macrophages, phagocytic

not big role in blood (b/c eventually leave the blood)

Front 76

neutrophils

Back 76

WBC

most common, acute inflammatory response ot tissue injury - ingest and destroy microorganisms especially bacteria

multilobe nucleus

first line of defense against bacterial invasion

Front 77

eosinophil

Back 77

WBC

defense against parasites

full of granules (stain pink)

Front 78

basophil

Back 78

WBC

granules congain histamine - inflammatory response

dark staining

Front 79

hemopoiesis

Back 79

production of blood cells, by hemopoietic tissues

made in bone marrow in adults
-embryos: liver and spleen also

Front 80

arteries

Back 80

carry blood FROM heart TO body

have high pressure

Front 81

veins

Back 81

carry blood TO heart FROM body (lungs)

Front 82

layers of blood vessels

Back 82

endothelium
tunica intima (inner)
tunica media (muscle layer)
tunica adventitia (outer)

Front 83

tunica intima

Back 83

-inner most layer of blood vessels
- includes endothelium and elastin fibers (internal elastic lamina)

-blood vessels + connective tissue + internal elastic lamina

Front 84

tunica media

Back 84

muscle layer of blood vessels (smooth muscle)

middle layer of blood vessels

Front 85

tunica adventitia

Back 85

outer supporting connective tissue of blood vessels

fade into surrounding tissue

contains primarily collagen fibers

Front 86

heart

Back 86

same structure as blood vessles (tunica intima, tunica media, tunica adventitia),
-highly enlarged tunica media
-made of cardiac muscle

Front 87

elastic arteries

Back 87

-blood out of heart
-highly pulsatile
-tunica media has rings of elastin
-first artery out of heart have extra elastin (b/c so much pressure, need to rebound)

Front 88

muscular arteries

Back 88

the arteries when get to limbs, etc

Front 89

arterioles

Back 89

regulators of blood flow
-small arteries (and not as thick)
-can modify and respond to signals by contracting or expanding smooth muscle)

Front 90

capillaries

Back 90

-"business part"
-carbon dioxide out
-oxygen in
-transfer of WBC through lining
-continuous
-fenestrated (have holes in walls)

-3um (half size of RBC)
-can be continuous, fenestrated or discontinuous (sinusoids)

Front 91

sinusoids

Back 91

complete hole in capillary
-free flow in gap

Front 92

veinules

Back 92

bring blood back to heart
-get bigger and turn into veins

Front 93

veins info

Back 93

-larger diameter
-thinner walls than arteries
-contains greatest part of blood volume so contraction of veins increases blood volume
-can expand/loosen for more/less blood
-low pressure

Front 94

blood islands

Back 94

aggretation of blood cells in development from yolk sac mesoderm

Front 95

mechanism of blood cell development

Back 95

-development from yolk sac mesoderm forming blood islands
-in all verts, blood comes from outside embryos (in blood islands)
- blood made in blood islands (have mesenchymal cells)
-internalized cells become WBC and RBC
-external mesoderm become outside layers of vessels

Front 96

blood making (for all verts):

Back 96

-uniform way of making blood
- uniform components of blood (except for no nucles in mammasl)

Front 97

elasmobranch heart structure

Back 97

-located beneath posterior end of pharynx floor, close to gills
-S shaped, single tube (no L and R chambers)
-4 chambers in linear sequence

Front 98

4 chambers of elasmobranch heart in linear sequence (from caudal end):

Back 98

1. sinus venosus
2. atrium
3. ventricle
4. conus arteriosus

Front 99

sinus venosus in elasmobranchs

Back 99

-most caudal heart chamber
-receives low pressure blood from common cardinal and hepatic veins
-
-valves thru heart stop flow from going backwards

Front 100

atrium in elasmobranchs

Back 100

- 2nd most caudal heart chamber

- thicker walled, large chamber accumulates blood, contracts and sends blood to ventricle
-blood accumulates til contraction takes place

Front 101

ventricle in elasmobranchs

Back 101

- 3rd most caudal heart chamber

- thickest walls .:. most powerful force
-expands as it receives blood, thicker walled, contracts and drives blood to conus arteriosus

Front 102

conus arteriosus in elasmobranchs

Back 102

-4th most caudal heart chamber
- thick walls, several rows of valves, acts as a buffer to even out pressure peaks

-no contraction
-outflow chamber

-goes to ventral aorta

Front 103

what allows blood to be sucked into sinus venosus of elasmobranchs?

Back 103

rigid structures around pericardial cavity plus contraction of hypobranchial muscles reduces pressure and allows blood to be sucked into sinus venosus

**fluid must not accumulate in pericardial cavity

Front 104

blood flow of elasmobranchs

Back 104

conus arteriosus, ventral aorta, 6 branches to gills (ventral part of first one lost in all verts = afferent branchial arteries), across gills, collector lops, efferent branchial arteries

Front 105

afferent

Back 105

TOWARDS

Front 106

efferent

Back 106

AWAY

Front 107

efferent branchial arteries of elasmobranchs

Back 107

efferent branchial arteries join to dorsal aorta, forwards via internal carotid arteries, backwards down dorsal aorta underneath vetrebral column

Front 108

ventral aorta location in elasmobranchs

Back 108

along length of body

Front 109

veinous system of elasmobranchs (afferent)

Back 109

-return to heart
-viscera, hepatic portal vein, hepatic sinusoid, hepatic veins, sinus venosus

head, cardinal veins+ jugular veins (ventral)

tail+trunk, cardinal veins

Front 110

vein supply in elasmobranchs

Back 110

all vein supply from gut

-intestines go to hepatic portal vein which then goes to liver (to store food) then back to heart to get oxygenated

Front 111

most evolutionary changes occured in ______, associated with ________

Back 111

most evolutionary changes occured in heart and aortic arches, associated with mode of respiration (gills to lung)

Front 112

pulmonary circulation

Back 112

-lungfish evolutionary change?

- have a branchial circulation and pulmonary circulation and a new vessel the pulmonary vein (carries blood from lung ot atrium) evolved

Front 113

elasmobranchs respiration

Back 113

respire from gills

5 branch goes into gills

Front 114

new inventions in aquatic lung
fish breathing

Back 114

-pulmonary artery
-pulmonary valves
-ductus arteriosus (name only)

Front 115

aquatic breathing in lungfish

Back 115

heart, arches (2,5,6) for oxygenation, dorsal arota, block on pulmonary artery prevents going to lung, ductus arteriosus

*3rd and 4th arches: no gills

*4 valves

Front 116

air breathing in lungfish

Back 116

oxygen poor blood, right side of atrium, spiral valve in conus, 6th aortic arch, shunted into 6th to bypass gills, ductus arteriosus valve closed so to pulmonary artery to lung, pulmonary vein, left atrium compartment, arches 3&4 to dorsal and ventral aorta

Front 117

spiral valve of air breathing lungfish

Back 117

-outflow of heart
- separate flow

Front 118

new inventions in air breathing lungfish

Back 118

-partially separated sinus venosus
- spiral valve in conus arteriousus
-valves

Front 119

sinus venosus in air breathing lungfish

Back 119

partially separated

separate 2 blood flows: low blood flow and high blood flow

Front 120

amphibian heart

Back 120

incompletely divided heart and system of shunts

1,2,5 aortic arches lost

atria seperated into L and R

inefficient? NO, very effective for periods of apnea

Front 121

3/4 arches in amph

Back 121

ventral aorta = common carotid + carotid body

Front 122

6th arch in amph

Back 122

becomes pulmocutaneous artery lungs and skin

Front 123

amph heart divisions

Back 123

atrium divided by septum but only a single ventricle

Front 124

separations in amph heart ateriosus's

Back 124

spiral valve in conus arteriosus (separates ox and deox blood flow)

separations in truncus arteriosus (ventral aorta)

Front 125

when is the ventricle partly divided?

Back 125

in reptiles

Front 126

reptiles heart chambers

Back 126

3 chambered heart, but ventricle partly divided (has a flap)

Front 127

pressure differences important in channeling blood in reptiles

Back 127

pulmonary circulation offers less resistance than systemic when breathing, more resistance when not being used (eg turtle diving)

Front 128

complete separation of ventricles seen in

Back 128

crocodiles

by interventricular septum

Front 129

odd blood flow of crocodiles

Back 129

right systemic arch comes from left ventricle and left systemic arch AND pulmonary circulation comes from right ventricle

Front 130

foramen of panizza

Back 130

in crocodiles

differential pressures and valves, allow shunting of blood

if apnea, not use lungs so not send blood there

diving=pressure in pulmonary trunk rises

Front 131

why do endotherms not have shunts?

Back 131

lungs continuously ventilated (endothermic and high metabolic rate) so no value in shunts

permanent breathers (no apnea)

Front 132

birds have what systemic arch?

Back 132

right

Front 133

subclavian artery of birds

Back 133

off common carotid
blood supply to wing muscles

Front 134

aortic arches lost in birds

Back 134

1,2,5,6 lost
but 6 modified to pulmonary arteries (L)

Front 135

6th aortic arch in mammals turns into

Back 135

left and right pulmonary arteries

right becomes subclavian

Front 136

complete seperation of ventricles in human heart allows for..

Back 136

differential muscularisation

pressure in systemic circ: 100mmHg

pressure in pulmonary circ: 15-20mmHg

well developed coronary circulation is a requirement for large musculature (cornary arteries from base of aorta and return to right atrium)

Front 137

do mammals have shunts?

Back 137

NO

but...fetal mammals DO have shunts between systemic and pulmonary circulation because lungs don't oxygenate, the placenta does

Front 138

shung in mammal embryo

Back 138

ductus arteriosus

6th one on left is kept for a shunt ^^

shunts to systemic circulation and goes to placenta

Front 139

2 embryonic shunts in human embryos

Back 139

1. ductus arteriosus
2. foramen ovale

in atrial walls

shut ductus arteriosus when use lungs

foramen clamps shut and over a couple months will completely fill in

at birth foramen ovale must close or lungs won't work properly

Front 140

excretory systems comes from

Back 140

intermediate mesoderm (outside of somites)

Front 141

nephrotomes

Back 141

under segmented somites therefore segment themselves into nephrotomes

nephron in each nephrotome

Front 142

nephron consists of

Back 142

two layerd cup of epithelium = renal capsule (bowman's capsule)

Front 143

renal capsule

Back 143

dilated end of a kidney tubule that surrounds a knot of capillaries (glomerulus)

Front 144

glomerulus

Back 144

a ball like network of capillaries that is surrounded by the renal capsule at the proximal end of a renal tubule

Front 145

renal corpuscle

Back 145

renal capsule and glomerulus

Front 146

nephron has what arterioles

Back 146

afferent and efferent

Front 147

bowman's capsule

Back 147

same as renal capsule

proximal end, forms a two layered cup-shaped capsule of simple squamous epithelium

Front 148

tubules of kidneys

Back 148

proximal tubule (absorptive, variable lentgh)
-intermediate tubule
-distal tubule
-collecting tubules
-excretory ducts

Front 149

kidney filtration mechanism increased by:

Back 149

1) two arterioles (rather than arteriole and veinule) and efferent smaller so pressure increases

2) diffusion distance short, capillaries fenestrated, filtration slits on podocytes

Front 150

what gets through kidneys filter?

Back 150

large molecules get held back (<60k mw), everything else gets through

amino acids, water, sugars recovered, rest eliminated

Front 151

efferent arteriole of kidney

Back 151

comes down and takes back what are reabsorbing and picks up what it wants

Front 152

podocyte

Back 152

long finger like process going all over

gaps in between is where filtration goes through

feet form outer diffusion barrier

Front 153

peritubular capillaries

Back 153

recovery takes place in the tubules through selective resorption, leaving urine to be excreted

Front 154

peritubular capillaries of chonds, reptiles, birds

Back 154

receive blood from both the efferent renal arteriole and afferent renal vein, leaving, respectively , the glomeruli and renal portal vein

Front 155

peritubular capillaries of osteichthyan fish and amphibians

Back 155

receive blood only from the renal portal vein beceuase the efferent renal arteriole enters the renal vein directly

Front 156

peritubular capillaries of mammals

Back 156

renal portal system is lost in mammals, so their peritubular capillaries receive blood only from the efferent renal arterioles

Front 157

end place of all peritubular capillary blood

Back 157

blood leaving the peribubular capillaries drains into the renal veins

Front 158

internal glomeruli

Back 158

most verts have renal tubules of the type described, in whichthe renal tubules do not connect with the coelom and the glomeruli are surrounded by renal capsules

Front 159

external glomeruli

Back 159

the first few nephrons at anterior end of ammocoetes and some larval amphibians

filtrate goes into coelom and then into duct by cilia = primitive (present in many larvae and invertebrates)

Front 160

which groups have a kidney connected to coelom?

Back 160

elasmobranchs, primitive actinopterygians, many amphibians

halfway to having renal corpuscle
halfway to being fully internal nephron

Front 161

nephros differentiate in what sequence

Back 161

rostral to caudal sequence

Front 162

holonephros

Back 162

proposed that the primitive condition is all pronephric and they all work

one nephron per segment

resembles larval hagfish, but they don't all work

Front 163

pronephros

Back 163

forms at rostral end
-when non-functional it initiates formation of archinephric duct

variable number:
-amniotes 1-3 (non-functional)
-anamniotes 12+ (functional in larvae of hagfish, lampreys, bony fish, amph, present in adult hagfish)

Front 164

mesonephros

Back 164

forms after a gap
-segmentation gradually lost due to secondary tubules developing
-functions in embryos and larvae of all vertebrates
-forms a sepearte unit in amniotes

Front 165

opisthonephros

Back 165

kidney includes the embryonic mesonephros and also tubules that develop in the caudal part of the nephric ridge

where mesonephros doesn't form a separate unit and runs to caudal end (adult hagfish)

2 kinds:
1. primitive opisthonephros
2. advanced opisthonephros

Front 166

primitive opisthonephros

Back 166

kidney includes the embryonic mesonephros and also tubules that develop in the caudal part of the nephric ridge

primitive b/c segmental nature of tubules

Front 167

advanced opisthonephros

Back 167

lost desegmentation
-caudal part enlarges
-cranial part used for sperm
-fish, amphibians

Front 168

mesonephros parts and function

Back 168

-posterior: excretory
-anterior: reprodictive part
-duct: passage of sperm

Front 169

metanephros

Back 169

-amniote invention
-mesonephros functions in embryo only
-ureteric bud extends from caudal archinephric duct, grows into caudalend of nephric ridge, branches induces renal tubules
-uretic bud becomes collecting tubules and ureter

Front 170

ureteric bud

Back 170

extends from caudal archinephric duct, grows into caudal end of nephric ridge, branches, induces renal tubules

uretic bud becomes collecting tubules and ureter

grows into surrounding mesoderm and enters post-nephrotome region
-induces to differentiate into kidney and each branch becomes a nephron then shifts away from archinephric duct and turns into opening: cloaca

Front 171

archinephric duct in m/f

Back 171

m: involved with sperm movement
f: degenerates

Front 172

arch duct and ureteric bud in reptiles and birds

Back 172

ureteric bud sepearates from archinephric duct and they enter the cloaca independently

Front 173

what is excreted from kidneys?

Back 173

nitrogenous waste from deamination of amino acids

each NH2 group makes 1 NH3=ammonia (very toxic)

NH3 very soluble in water, flushed out (teleosts)

converted into urea (less toxic) or uric acid (birds) (low solubility in water, precipitates out, discharged as a paste)

Front 174

osmoregulation

Back 174

iso-osmotic
hypo-osmotic

maintaining salt/water balance

Front 175

iso-osmotic

Back 175

cells with same inorganic salt content as sea (hagfish andmarine cart. fish)

no problems

Front 176

hypo-osmotic

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all others, salt content of cells is less than environ

our cells less salt than salt water need to maintain balance

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osmolarity of freshwater fish

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-cells of FW fish have more salt than surrounding water
--osmotic conc of FW fish = low
-need to maintain cells above osmolalarity
-FW fish need to get rid of water in cells
-minimize water intake
-lots of dilute hypo-osmotic urine (NH3)

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large renal corpuscle

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more water in raw filtrate

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thick intermediate segments of nephron..

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many cilia to drive filtrate through tubule, which means less water will be reabsorbed

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one extreme: concentrated urine

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marine teleosts and mammals

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other extreme: dilute urine

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freshwater teleosts and sharks = copius dilute urine

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osmolarity of saltwater fish

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-high osmolarity
-more salt in surrounding water than in cells
-water will come out into more hypotonic medium (sea)
-minimize water loss, drink alot
-minimal products of urea
-active secretion of NA to get rid of salts

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salmon and osmolarity

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salmon go from saltwater to freshwater to reproduce, so their whole kidney changes

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marine chondrichthyans osmolarity

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-shark cells in sw = more conc than normal cell osmolarity
-minimize water intake
-lots of dilute hypo-osmotic uring (NH3)
-retain urea in cells to increase osmotic pressure
-raise osmolarity of cells above sea water and not get rid of water that flush into cells

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reptile osmolarity

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don't lose water!!
-no cutaneous respiration
-no more respiration than needed

-uric acid excreted
-renal corpuscle very small to reduce water absorption

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birds and mammals osmolarity

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-extra problems of high metabolism and endothermy so more waste and more water loss during respiration

solution = more renal tubules

-higher filtration pressures to clear more waste, evolution of special tubules

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how mammals and birds solve problem of higher water loss

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1. small amount of urine, relatively hypotonic
2. dramiatically increase # of renal tubules (2-4mil)
3. higher filtration pressures ot get rid of extra wastes

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vasa recta

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in human kidneys,

blood/vascular system that runs inside the Loop of Henle (parallel to it)into the medulla

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loop of henle

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human kidney

loops into the medulla, essential in establishing the interstitial salt gradient needed for the production of a concentrated urine

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renal pyramids

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apices that form renal papillae which protrude into the renal calices

long loops ofhenle and collecting tubules are aggregated in the medulla to form pyramids

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what part of kidney forms the countercurrent?

Back 191

loop of henle and vasa recta

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amniotes goal w/ kidney?

Back 192

keep all water they can

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what determines how much water to be retained?

Back 193

length of loop of henle

ex. desert rodents very long

*longer loop = more water retained

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other ways to get rid of salt in birds and mammals

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salt glands

whale kidneys-get rid of salt better than normal

-human excrete 1.35L urine for every 1L water drink

-whale excrete 0.65L urine for eveyr 1L water drink

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reproduction function

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purpose of life!

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sexual reproduction function

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maintains genetic variation within a population

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tunicates sexuality

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both asexual (budding) and sexual

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parthenogenesis

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-activation and development of an egg without fertilization
-some vert species are all female
-ex: whip-tailed lizards, salamander, amazon molly

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genotypic sex determination

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sex determined at time of fertilization

birds and mammals

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birds sex chromosomes

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females are heterogametic: WZ

males homegametic:WW

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temperature dependent sex determination

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sex determined by incubation temperature

>30 C female
<25 C male

b/c estrogen overrides temp

-turtles, lizards and gators
-other reptiles that retain young in uterus have genotypic sex determination

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hermaphroditism

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evolves when genetic determination not present
-sex not determined by genetic factors

-presence of both sex organs in same body
-common in lower verts

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synchronous hermaphrodites

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testis and ovaries function concurrently, or have ovotestis (some teleosts or sea bass)
-self fertilization is possible

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sequential hermaphrodites

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-gonad changes function during the life of an individual
-protogyn ous
-protandrous

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protogynous

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-sequential hermaphrodites
-first female than male
-many teleosts

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protandrous

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-sequential hermaprodites
-first male than female
-

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social reversal

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-coral reef fishes
-females breed with single male, kill male, dominant female turns into male

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patterns of reproduction

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.oviparous
-viviparous

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oviparous

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-pattern of reproduction
-lay macro/mesolecithal eggs containing sufficient yolk for the embryos to develop into free swimming larvae that can provide for their own needs
-fish, amph, reptiles
-sperm pourd over eggs
-high mortality

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viviparous

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-live birth
-embryos born as miniature adults
-fertilize eggs in uterus
-need internal fertilization
-chond, some teleosts, caecilians, few frogs, salanamders, all mammals

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indifferent phase

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in development of reproductive system

initially when the male and female systems are the same

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development of reproductive system begins

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begins adjacent to mesonephros (intermediate mesoderm) and a genital ridge appears and bulges into coelom as primordial germ cells migrate form yolk sac

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2 cell types in sensory system

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neuron (transmits signals)

glia (structural and functional support)

*more glia than neuron cells

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CNS

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brain and spinal cord

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PNS

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nerves of the body

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4 parts of a neuron

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1. cell body or som
2. dendrites (receive)
3. 1 axon (conducts)
4. terminal arborisation, synapses

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soma/cell body

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contains nucleus and metabolic machinery of cell, can be huge relative to other cells (eg motor neuron)

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cell body locations

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motor neuron: close to dendrites

bipolar retinal neuron and pseudounipolar sensory neuron, in diff places

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ganglion

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groups of cell bodies outside the CNS

only 1 axon, but can be thousands of dendrites, receive stimuli, make synapses with an axon

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purkinje cell

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dendritic tree
receives waht to do, but only have 1 output

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axon

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-long slender cytoplasmic process
-conducts impulses
-frequently branched
-conducts cellular flow to end (exoplasmic flow)
-conducts action potential due ot polarized membrane 60 mv+ve outside
-ion channels open, Na enter, depolarized (reversed) and a nerve impulse (wave of depolarization) travels down nerve