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254 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Where was the first nuclear bomb exploded? How powerful was it?
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In 1945 first nuclear bomb was exploded in New Mexico.
Prior to this, most powerful explosion was equivalent to one ton of TNT.. This explosion was 20kton (20,000X more powerful than any previous explosion) |
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What atomic model did J.J. Thomson suggest?
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Plum Pudding model: a uniform positive charge with negative charges dispersed within
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What are the three types of radioactivity?
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1. alpha particles: (helium nuclei)
2. beta particles: (high energy electrons) 3. gamma rays: (radiation) |
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What was Ernest Rutherford's famous experiment? what did it prove?
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Gold Foil Experiment: he projected alpha particles at gold foil. He expected them to go straight through. However, some were deflected and some even shot straight back. Therefore, there must be a solid inner part to each atom.
From this experiment, Rutherford found the structure of an atom and its nucleus. |
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What is an isotope?
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same number of protons (thus same atomic number and it is the same element) but different molecular weight (i.e. different numbers of neutrons)
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What did Niels Bohr contribute to the structure of an atom?
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Found that electrons are in rings
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What did Heisenberg and Schrondinger contribute to the structure of an atom?
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Found that there was an "electron cloud" where there was only a probability of electrons being at any moment in time
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The first split nucleus:
-when? -where? -how? |
-1938
-Germany -Hahn and Strassman shot neutrons at a nucleus and expected to get a heavier nucleus. However, the nucleus split into two lighter elements. This splitting gives off a lot of energy. (They shot nucleus at Uranium 235, the least abundant isotope of uranium. When a slowed neutron combined with the nucleus, it made U-236, which is highly unstable.. the nucleus split into two lighter elements giving off energy. This was called FISSION) |
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Where was the first sustained nuclear reaction? how was it done?
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under the bleachers of the football stadium at the university of chicago
used bars of uranium for reaction, used graphite as the moderator |
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Differentiate between "sub-critical" "critical" and "super-critical"
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1. Sub-critical = only one split (there is too little U-235 for the reaction to continue).. (Hans and Strassman)
2. Critical = if at least one neutron has been slowed down there is a chance of it colliding with another nucleus and therefore continuing the reaction (University of Chicago) 3. Super-critical = continued splitting of U-235 = nuclear explosion (New Mexico 1945) |
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How much U-235 do you need to create a bomb?
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you need U235 at 90% (it occurs naturally at only 0.7%).. therefore you need to enrich uranium to create a bomb
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What was used for the test bomb? uranium or plutonium?
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plutonium
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What was "Little Boy"
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-uranium bomb
-there were 2 masses of U-235 that at the proper altitude they would be projected against one another to achieve critical mass -dropped over Hiroshima in 1945... killed 140,000 |
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What are the two fissionable isotopes?
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Uranium 235 and Plutonium 239
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What was "Fat Man"
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-3 days after "Little Boy" this bomb was dropped on Nagasaki.
-Plutonium 239 bomb -Had a round shape with explosive in the middle, when it went off all the plutonium around it reached critical mass. -idea of "lenses" -fewer people died at Nagasaki because it was in a valley so radiation didn't spread as far. |
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Explain the idea of a hydrogen bomb:
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-A hydrogen bomb involves fusion rather than fission (this is what occurs on the surface of the sun)
-it could potentially eliminate civilization -developed by Teller (Jewish refugee in America) -first tested at Bikini Atoll in 1952 (this island is where the bikini bathing suit comes from) |
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Differentiate between fusion and fission:
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Fission: breaking apart of heavier nuclei to create energy. it releases radioactivity
Fusion: combining of smaller nuclei. Gives off a lot more energy than fission. Byproducts are helium and neutrons (no radioactivity) *you need a fission reaction to occur for fusion to take place (since fusion requires a tremendous amount of energy to begin) |
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4 steps to a hydrogen bomb:
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1. TNT explosion
2. Fission of Plutonium 239 3. Fusion 4. Fission |
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What is the Tsar Bomb?
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-Biggest bomb ever built
-Built by the Russians -Hydrogen bomb that had 10 times the yield of all the explosives used in WWII combined |
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What is a neutron bomb
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1. conventional explosion
2. fission 3. fusion *unlike hydrogen bomb, no last step of fission. It is the neutrons produced that kill people. Therefore no radiation. Less damage to infrastructure, but more deaths. |
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Explain the concept of "Mutually Assured Destruction"
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nobody dares to use a nuclear weapon because they know the opposition would use it as well
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What is the Non-proliferation Treaty of 1968?
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189 countries have signed to date.
basically says that no one will continue to build their nuclear arsenal India, Pakistan, and Israel never signed N. Korea signed but withdrew it 2003 |
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What is the first sign that a country is trying to develop nuclear bombs?
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the purchasing of centrifuges... you need centrifuges for enrichment
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Who produces the most nuclear energy from nuclear reactors? Who has the most nuclear reactors?
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France produces the most energy from nuclear reactors
The USA has the most nuclear reactors though |
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Explain a "Pressurized Water Reactor"
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Fuel: U-235 (3% enriched)
Coolant: water Moderator: water Reactor Core: enriched uranium rods in water. The control rods (cadmium or boron) absorb excess neutrons (you can raise or lower these to affect the rate). Water is under pressure to prevent it from boiling. The heat produced is used to turn turbines to create energy. |
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Whats the difference between a pressurized water reactor and a boiling water reactor?
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-In a boiling water reactor you can't get to as high of temperatures.
-A pressurized water reactor can produce a lot more energy than a boiling water reactor -A pressurized reactor has a higher chance of being released to the environment (radioactive water under pressure is more likely to leak out than water not under pressure) |
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Explain the Candu Reactor:
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Fuel: Uranium- 235 (0.7%)
Coolant: Heavy water (deuterium) Moderator: Heavy water *Notice no enriched uranium! |
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Explain the Fast Breeder Reactor:
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-Fuel: Plutonium 239 (U-238)
-Coolant: sodium -Moderator: there is none... *produces more fuel than it actually uses! * |
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Three radioactive waste products:
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-Strontium-90 (same family as calcium.. goes into bones)
-CS-137 -Iodine-131 (goes to thyroid) |
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What is "Re-processing"
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When waste material is treated to reuse Pu-239 or U-238
*this is a major concern for terrorists hijacking this nuclear waste (amt of Pu-239 needed for bomb = 5 kilos) *only France and Britain reprocess waste (countries like Japan ship their waste all the way to these countries) |
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If you don't reprocess, what do you do with your nuclear waste?
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Storage= The USA and Canada store our excess waste
-stored under water to dissipate heat -mostly alpha particles so not particularly dangerous |
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How many half-lives must a material go through before it is safe?
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about 10 half lives until a material is safe
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Where is the best place to store these radioactive materials?
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abandoned salt mines.
Why? if there are underground salt mines it implies that very little water runs through it (since salt is so soluble in water) |
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What is Yucca Mountain in Nevada?
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Where the US built a storage site that we intended on storing all nuclear waste... however Obama thought tehre was too much potential danger in transportation that he cancelled this project
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Is natural fission possible?
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Yes. Natural fission occured naturally in Gabon, Africa. 200 million years ago, there was enough U-235 naturally to sustain nuclear fission naturally.. there was no release of radioactive material in the atmosphere b/c the reaction took place underground. U-235 naturally decays so that is why there is not presently enough U235 to sustain a natural fission reaction today.
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Explain the 3 Mile Island incident:
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The operator allowed the reactor to overheat. A steam bubble was produced. The radioactive steam bubble was released slowly. There have been no health concerns to the area since.
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Explain the Chernobyl incident:
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*no nuclear explosion (obv. because there wasnt enough enriched U235 to sustain an explosion)
-operator lost control and the reactor overheated. -Very very hot water combined with zircodium and graphite (the moderator) to produce hydrogen. -hydrogen exploded -reactor was NOT in a containment building! -oxygen rushed in and continued the burning -first people to realize was Swedish nuclear reactor operators (their badges began to glow showing radioactivity). -officially only 31 people died, but many more subject to disease and disfigurement |
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What could have been given to people of Chernobyl to prevent thyroid cancer?
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Iodine127 would have prevented thyroid cancer. This saturates the thyroid gland so radioactive I131 can't get there.
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What is the Tokamak Project?
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Trying to sustain nuclear fusion (produce a lot more energy than fission, also cleaner and safer)
They are trying to use magnets to control the material so it never touches a surface |
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What is the Livermore project?
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Also trying to sustain nuclear fusion (more energy than fission with less danger)...
They are trying to zap with electricity to keep the reaction from touching and surfaces. |
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Has controlled fusion been achieved?
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Yes but so far it costs much more energy to carry out the reaction than it gives off
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What is a closestool?
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It is a piece of furniture used for shitting.. where we get the term "stool" from
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What are coprolites?
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*dried feces
We can use these to determine what a human or animal has been eating |
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What is Kopi Luwak?
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A type of coffee bean... It is eaten partially digested and defecated.. These beans are sold for $300 per pound as a delicacy.
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Half the weight of human feces is composed of what?
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bacteria
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What happens in Swaziland if you don't defecate at least 3 times a day?
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they give you an enema to make you go more....
*Swaziland has one of the lowest rates of colon cancer in the world! |
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What is skatole?
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The molecule responsible for the odor of feces
Ants use this molecule as a pheromone Perfume companies use skatole as a fixate in their fragrances |
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Why are dung beetles so important?
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They deal with feces.. In Tsavo Game Park in Africa, they remove 1500 tons of elephant dung a day. They roll it into balls push it underground and lay their larvae in it.
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What do we use as a marker to determine bacterial safety of water?
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we use coliform.. This is a bacteria in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals that is excreted in the feces..
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How can we determine if fecal contamination is human or from animals?
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We use cholesterol/coprostanol ratio in water (coprostanol is produced solely from humans)
Also the presence of caffeine is solely from human sources |
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Why did Germany import so much guano from South America in the 1800s?
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Because guano was used to make gun powder
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How is fecal matter used as fuel?
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In Tibet, they use yak fecal matter to burn for heat
In Iceland, they use sheep dung to burn as fuel as well In Mongolia, kids gather pellets of dung to be used as fuel and to make bricks for walls |
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What are three natural laxatives?
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psyllium seeds, belladonna, and rhubarb
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Approximately how much gasoline is used in the US per day?
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about 400 million gallons
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What was the catalyst to mass-produced cars?
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The assembly line (by Henry Ford in early 1900s)
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What is the TWEEL
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completely rubberless and airless tire. Made completely out of metal. Makes noise over 50mph though
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How much is a terrwatt?
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1 billion kilowatts
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Where was the first oil well in North America?
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in Ontario... a year later, Drake built an oil well in Tysonville, PA
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What did Howard R. Hughes contribute to oil drilling?
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He added the idea of adding diamond to drill bits (made drilling through rocks much easier)
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Who are the biggest producers of oil?
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1. Russia
2. Saudi Arabia 3. USA 4. Canada |
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Who are the biggest oil consumers?
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1. USA
2. Japan 3. China 4. Canada |
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Who is the largest importer of oil to America?
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Canada (Mexico and Saudi Arabia aren't too far behind though)
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Number of carbons/name/number of isomers:
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1/methane/1
2/ethane/1 3/propane/1 4/butane/2 5/pentane/3 6/hexane/5 7/heptane/9 8/octane/18 |
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When adjusting for inflation, have gas prices gone up since 1920?
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No, not when adjusting for inflation, there hasn't been too drastic of a change.
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what is 12-18 carbons called?
what about 16-20 carbons? 20+ carbons? 50+carbons? |
12-18 carbons are kerosene
16-20 carbons are lubricant 20+ carbons are wax 50+ carbons are roofing |
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What percentage of oil is made into plastics?
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7%
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Oxidation Reaction:
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2H + O2 ----> 2H2O + Heat
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Combustion Reaction:
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Fuel + Oxygen ----> CO2 + H2O + heat
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What is octane rating?
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based on antiknock level of octane...
heptane has antiknock level of 0 regular gasoline has antiknock level of 87 antiknock level of 100 isn't necessary in normal cars |
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Why was lead once used in gasoline? What did they add to try to avoid the problem of lead?
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tetra ethyl lead added to gasoline to give better engine performance but tetra ethyl lead + O2 = lead oxide (solid) which ruined engine, so added liquid dibromoethane which reacted with lead oxide to produce CO2 and lead dibromide which is volatile and exits the tale pipe but poisons the environment, lead no longer used
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What did Dr. Clair Patterson due?
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He found the relative age of the Earth. He also found the composition of lead naturally occurring in the environment
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What is the "Fischer-Tropsch" approach?
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the idea of making gasoline from coal rather than oil...
C + O2 ------> CO2 ----(with H2O and catalyst)----> H2 + CO The product is SYNGAS (can be converted to methane and other hydrocarbons) *Not efficient enough yet |
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what is "gasohol"
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10% ethanol (From corn)
90% gasoline |
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What is the best engine lubricating oil?
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SAE 10W 30 (works in the summer and the winter)
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What are 4 additives in lubricating oil?
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1. Rust inhibitors
2. Oxidation inhibitors 3. Detergents 4. Surface inhibitors |
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What is antifreeze?
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Made up mostly from ethylene glycol... it works by breaking up the normal way water molecules organizes itself
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What is the main additive to antifreeze?
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Polystyrene beads... they collect at tiny holes in the radiator and block them to keep water out.
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What is windshield washer fluid composed of?
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methanol
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What are three main pollutants from cars?
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1. nitrous oxides (NOx)
2. carbon monoxide (CO) 3. volatile organic compounds |
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What does a catalytic converter do?
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Reduces NOx to nitrogen and oxygen
Oxidizes CO to CO2 Oxidizes hydrocarbons to CO2 |
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What is the "Zenn"
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the Canadian Electric Car:
-Zero Emissions No Noise -40km/hr -60km per charge -sold only in the US and B.C. *reduces CO2 -get 250 mpg |
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What is the EV1?
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can go up to 130kph
only has a range of about 100 miles though $50k |
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Hybrid Electrical Vehicles:
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runs on both electricity and gasoline
breaking charges the battery (Honda Insight gets 70mpg highway) |
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Explain how fuel cells work
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hydrogen combines with O2 from the atmosphere.. Hits catalyst and proton exchange takes place... H2O is excreted as a byproduct
The BMW 750HL has a range of about 300km (but refueling only in Milan, Munich, and LA) |
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Explain how airbags work:
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they contain sodium azide
2 NaN3 -----> 2Na + 3N2 (you don't want elemental sodium, so potassium and sand is added to yield silicate glass) |
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Explain how fuel cells work
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hydrogen combines with O2 from the atmosphere.. Hits catalyst and proton exchange takes place... H2O is excreted as a byproduct
The BMW 750HL has a range of about 300km (but refueling only in Milan, Munich, and LA) |
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Explain how airbags work:
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they contain sodium azide
2 NaN3 -----> 2Na + 3N2 (you don't want elemental sodium, so potassium and sand is added to yield silicate glass) |
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How dangerous is it to be a garbageman?
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VERY! they are 3 times more likely to be killed on the job than policemen or firemen...
ex. hydrofluoric acid (so corrosive that it is used to etch glass) was in a half full container that got compacted by trash truck.. squirted onto garbagemen. One died, one has permanent damage |
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What happens when Fluoride is exposed to us? (Rxn)
What can we do to prevent this reaction from taking place? |
F- + Ca++ -------> CaF2
(so when exposed to HF it can cause all kind of problems with the nervous system and the heart) Calcium gluconate gel (2.5%) can be used as a treatment (fluoride gets tied up in this calcium). |
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How much garbage does each person produce?
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4 lbs of garbage per person per day
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What is in our garbage?
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1. paper and cardboard (majority)
2. yard wastes 3. plastics 4. glass, food, ferrous materials, etc. |
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What happens to our garbage?
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27% is recycled or composted (not good because in theory all of it could be)
8% is incinerated (both good and bad.. we can generate fuel, but also create pollution) 66% is buried in landfills |
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Explain "Bioremediation"
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The process by which living organisms act to degrade or transform hazardous material (basically bacteria does the job of breaking down chemicals)
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Explain "Compost"
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naturally occurring bacteria in organic waste break down and degrade the material. This forms fertilizer
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Out of the 20,000,000 tires discarded a year. 75% are recycled. What are they made into?
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They can't be made into new tires because they lose integrity during the recycling process.. However they are made into:
-roof shingles -sound proofing wall panels -running tracks -rubber in turf fields |
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What pollutants do tire fires give off?
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H2S, SO2, H2SO4
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Can we incinerate tires to provide clean energy?
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Yes, incinerators exist that can burn tires without pollutants and they do provide a small amt of energy
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What was "MOBRO" ?
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In 1987 in NYC:
They loaded up trash on a barge called Mobro and planned to ship it to North Carolina to have methane gas extracted from it. There were rumors that the barge contained medical waste (but it didn't). So N.C. no longer wanted it, and no one else did either. The barge went around the Gulf of Mexico but eventually ended up directly back in the landfill in NYC where it came from. This event brought attention to garbage |
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Are we running out of landfills?
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No... in fact, if we continue creating garbage at the same rate we are for the next 1000 years, it will fit in a hole 100 yards deep and 35 miles on each side
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Are modern landfills a danger to the environment?
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No, they are built well so nothing leaches out. When they are full, we can cover them and build a park over them.
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What is "Biogas"
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Since landfills produce methane, we can put a pipe down into the landfill and collect it. this is known as "biogas"
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What was Napolean's contribution to recycling?
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He was the first one to start recycling.
He mandated a law stating that men had to urinate on nitre beds because this formed gunpowder |
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Why doesn't NYC recycle?
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It actually would cost more for NYC to recycle than to not, so its not economically efficient
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Is Polyethyleneglycol Terapthalate (PET) worth recycling?
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Yes, PET is very good to recycle (financial success).
It is in soft drink bottles, water bottles, etc. (In fact, PET is the only plastic that "pays for its recycling" .. this means that it costs less to recycle it than it does to produce it new from scratch) |
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Can PVC be recycled?
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Yes (shampoo bottles, etc.)
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Can polyethylene be recycled?
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Yes (milk cartons, etc.)
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Can we recycle plastic bottles to store beverages?
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No, because plastics are very absorbant and we don't know what was stored in them, we can't store beverages in them again. However we can use them to make tennis balls and plastic lumbar (i.e. park benches)
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Can we reuse glass bottles to store beverages?
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Yes (not absorbent like plastic bottles).. but they are heavy and difficult to transport.. Also require a lot of hot water to clean, so they might not be efficient
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Is using paper bags over plastic bags good?
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No...
*it requires 5 times as much energy to produce paper than it does to produce plastic *paper occupies 10X as much space in a landfill *paper produces 10X as much air emissions |
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What is better, a paper cup or styrofoam cup?
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1. There are more petroleum resources to make paper rather than styrofoam
2. More steam, electricity, water, and air emissions to create paper in comparison to styrofoam 3. 35X more processing chemicals in paper 4. Paper isn't recyclable... styrofoam is but often isn't |
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Is using a ceramic mug instead of paper or styrofoam environmentally friendly?
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Yes, as long as you use it at least 100 times (but also keep in mind all the hot water and soap you have to use to keep it clean).
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Was McDonald's switch from polystyrene good for the environment?
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No... the polystyrene actually used 30% less energy than the cardboard they use now
Also resulted in over 40% less air and water pollution However, people PERCEIVED that the polystyrene was worse for the environment so McD's changed it (this decision was not based on REALITY) |
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Are juice boxes or juice bottles more efficient?
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-filling of boxes requires half the energy
-transport of empty bottles requires 15 times as many trucks -filled boxes can be transported with 35% more efficiency *Therefore, boxes are much more efficient |
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Is aluminum good to recycle?
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Aluminum is 100% recyclable. It is profitable. It is also easy to separate
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Which is better for the environment: disposable or cotton diapers?
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Disposable:
-more convenient -polypropylene and sodium polyacrylate come from non-renewable sources -takes up more space in landfills (and feces can leach into groundwater if not a proper landfill) Reusable: -cotton requires 4 times as much water -requires twice as much energy -produces twice as much pollution - |
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How many trees do we use for the New York Times Sunday paper?
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75,000 trees
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Are we in danger of losing trees?
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No. We can harvest trees. In Canada, we plant 2 trees for every 1 we cut down
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When computers were introduced, we expected there to be less use of paper. Did this happen?
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No.. we actually use more paper now that we use computers
Furthermore, computers account for about 5% of energy use in N. America (CO2, nitrogen and sulfur oxides) |
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Where do recycled computers go?
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To China... small children there do the recycling which exposes them to heavy metals
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In Europe, what must electronic stores provide?
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They must provide a certificate with electronic equipment to allow them to return the electronics to be recycled
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How many primary teeth do we have? how many permanent teeth do we have?
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Primary = 20
Permanent = 32 |
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What are the layers of the teeth?
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1. enamel
2. dentin 3. cementum 4. pulp 5. root canal |
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What is the different between diphyodont and polyphyodont
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Diphyodont = 2 sets of teeth (humans)
Polyphydont = multiple sets of teeth (sharks) |
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How many USA adults dont have their teeth after age 65 (in 1997 and now)
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1997= 37%
today = 24% |
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Tooth Decay vs. Gum Disease:
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You are at risk for tooth decay in early years. You are at risk for gum disease when you are older
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What causes tooth loss? tooth decay or gum disease?
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gum disease
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What did Van Leevenhoeck contribute to dental health?
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He invented the microscope and found living organisms in his mouth (he called them "animalcules")
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What is the bacteria that is detrimental to our teeth?
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S. mutans:
it produces lactic acid (when you eat sugar the bacteria feeds on the sugar and produces the acid).... leads to plaque |
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What is plaque?
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A mixture of colonies of S. mutans and its byproducts (glucans)
The plaque is what allows for more s. mutans to attach to the teeth (therefore we must remove plaque) |
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What is Le Chatalier's Principle?
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Refers to maintaining equilibrium
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Explain how cavities are formed (by reaction equation)
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Hydroxyapatite is in solid form is in equilibrium and there is OH- (base) on the right
There will be H+ from lactic acid formed on the left side of the equation Since there will be less OH- on the right, by Le Chatelier's Principle, the equation will shift right to equilibrate, thus dissolving the solid hydroxyapatite |
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Has there been an increase or decrease in cavity fillings?
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There are less than half as many cavities as there were in in 1980 (this is largely due to cavity awareness and the use of fluoride)
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What 4 properties make a good filling material?
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1. malleable
2. inert 3. strong 4. non-toxic |
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How did we used to do dental fillings?
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"un plombage" is french for a filling because they used to use lead (plumbing)... You heat lead to over 100 degrees Celsius and then you pour the molten hot lead into your mouth.
sometimes they would hammer in the lead instead of melting it (if you could afford it you would get gold foils) |
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How do we fill in cavities today?
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Frenchmen Dr. Teveau used a mixture of mercury and silver (called AMALGAM)
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Who is the father of modern dentistry? What did he discover?
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Dr. Greene Black
Discovered the first good dental filling material... HIs procedure: 1. remove decayed material (this is the drilling) 2. amalgam that would expand to the right amount and also be strong enough to resist high pressure *since silver to mercury leads to expansion, Dr. Black added tin to get the proper amt of expansion |
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What does a Gnathodynamometer measure?
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Pressure of the jaw (found to be about 175 lbs per square inch)
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What is an amalgamator?
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A machine that properly mixes the mercury and silver (keeps it from being out in the open and exposing the dentist to the harmful mercury)
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What is the scare of mercury being in our dental fillings?
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60 minutes did a special claiming people were developing neurological disorders (parkinson's, MS, etc.) from the mercury in their dental fillings.. we have since reduced our use of mercury everywhere, including dental fillings
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What was Dr. Vimy's contribution to the mercury dental fillings scare?
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Canadian doctor. He took 6 sheep and gave them 12 fillings each. Noticed that the mercury from the amalgam went to the kidneys, brain, and fetuses. He claimed that the mercury in fillings is not inert.. he got people very scared
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What is "dentox" ?
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A homeopathic agent used to combat harmful heavy metals (i.e. mercury) from doing harm to the body
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What are 4 pieces of evidence against Dr. Vimy's theory:
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1. sheep are not an appropriate model (they grind their teeth)
2. no correlation in human studies between amalgam fillings and detrimental health effects 3.Dentists have better health status than the population at large 4. True allergic reaction <1% *No evidence of significant risk, but should minimize use in children and pregnant women. |
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Whats the worry with hypoxy fillings?
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These new fillings (used only within the last 10 years) are the white fillings you see. There are now worries of Bisphenol A leaching out of them though.
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Explain the idea of "homeopathy"
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“the more diluted the substance is, the more potent it becomes”
German doctor took peruvian bark (contains quinine) and he developed a high fever -quinine is used to treat fever in malaria. -he saw that in high exposure, quinine leads to fever, but in small amounts it combats fever -Ex. arsenic causes gastric pains.. so he claimed that a diluted amt of arsenic would help with gastric pains. |
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What do we add to a coffin before cremation?
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Selenium so it ties up the mercury so it isn't released into the atmosphere
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Choices of filling material (how long it lasts and how much it costs):
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1. Amalgam: (25 years, $100)
2. Composite: (5+ years, $150.... but this process is very dependent on the skill of the technician) 3. Ceramic (15 years, $900) 4. Gold (25+ years, $1000) |
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History of X-rays:
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-Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1895) discovered the x-ray by accident
-was working with cathode tubes.. noticed that they emitted some kind of radiation -he called them x-rays -x-rays are very short wave lengths, they can enter the human body, but reflect off bone -Roentgen got the first Nobel Prize in physics -December 28. 1896 Roentgen did this experiment -on Feb 7th, 1896 there was an X-ray at McGill -first x-ray to be used clincially was feb, 8th 1896 in NYC when cop got shot in hand with pellets. |
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Are we exposed to much radiation during a dental x-ray?
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A full set of dental x-rays (ca. 14-18 images) is equivalent, in terms of radiation exposure, to an average day exposure of background radiation or from flying from Montreal to Calgary.
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What do we use to limit radiation exposure in dental x-rays now?
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they use digital images now to limit x-ray exposure
-use a CCD (charge-coupled device) -better contrast |
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What is odontology?
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using dentistry for forensics...
-after 9/11 -study of bitemark -in a rape they can match bite marks to dentistry -how Ted Bundy was captured (serial killer) |
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How has our consumption of sugar changed since the 70s?
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in the 70s: the majority of sugar was added to our food at home (very little was already added to our food from industry)
Today: most sugar is added by industry (very little is added by us at home) |
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How has our consumption of soda changed since the 70s?
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We have increased our consumption of soda from 75liters to 115liters (this is where a large portion of our added sugar comes from)
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Does soda have more sugar than juice?
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No.. they have approximately the same amt of sugar (juice is still healthy though)... also cereals are high in sugar
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What is the sugar content of:
-ice cream -ketchup -salad dressing -chocolate bar |
-ice cream = 21%
-ketchup = 29% -salad dressing = 30% -chocolate bar = 51% |
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Does salivation prevent dental carries?
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Yes, it is slightly basic and it contains antibacterial agents
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Is chewing gum good or bad for your teeth?
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Good for your teeth. It increases salivation and contains xylitol (which is an antibacterial agent)
-sorbitol = doesn't metabolize, stays in intestine and starts fermenting there (when this stuff ferments, it leads to exploding diarrhea). |
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Is hard cheese good for your teeth? What about kissing?
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Hard cheese and kissing are both good for your teeth, they lead to salivation
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What are the components of toothpaste?
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-insoluble sodium metaphosphate: abrasive agent
-soribitol: sweetener -titanium dioxide: white pigment -sodium lauryl sulfate: detergent (what causes the toothpaste to foam) *fluoride |
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Why did we start adding fluoride to toothpaste and drinking water?
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Frederick McKay (1926) in Colorado Springs
-found that people there had brown teeth (Colorado teeth)..fluorosis -they didn’t get cavities though -older people who moved to colorado didn’t get cavities but they didn’t get the brown stains (fluorosis).. so he realized there was some exposure that led to protection but it was in childhood exposure |
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How does fluoride work in Le Chatalier's Principle?
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moves the rxn to the left (you replace hydroxapatite with fluoroapatite)... H+ is more readily combined to hydroxyapatite than fluoroapatite (since fluoride is a weaker base than OH-)
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Does montreal have fluorinated public drinking water?
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No
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At what level is fluoride lethal? At what level is it currently in water? At what level does it cause fluorosis? At what level does it cause skeletal changes?
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Lethal at 5g (drink 4,500L to die from it)
It is in our water at 0.7 ppm Fluorosis occurs at 8.0 ppm Skeletal changes occur at 20.0 ppm (tea has fluoride at a level of 8.0ppm) |
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What are "sealants" ?
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fluoride doesn’t work as well on back teeth, so sealant is used to protect them
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Is there a vaccine for tooth decay?
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-bacteria that produce antibodies specific to S. mutans
-bacteria that lack the enzyme converting sugar to lactic acid -bacteria that have the enzyme that convert urea into ammonia (a base.. thus counteracting the lactic acid) |
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Do we brush off plaque?
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No.. plaque is difficult to brush off. We brush off pellcile (the precursor to plaque)
Once tartar is produced, we can't brush it off |
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What does sodium pyrophosphate do?
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It prevents tartar from forming (once tartar is formed it can't be brushed off)
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Whats the difference between gingivitis and periodontitis?
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Gingivitis = mild gum disease
Periodontitis = severe gum disease. |
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What are the risks of periodontitis?
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25% increased risk of coronary heart disease
-bacteria travels into the bloodstream and into the artery.. this dental plaque can lead to arterial plaque. -these bacteria trigger release of “c-reactive” protein from liver.. leads to inflammation -the same bacteria in bacteria plaque is located in arterial plaque *but this could be b/c these people take bad care of themselves anyways |
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What is "Halitosis" ?
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very bad breath
treated by: products that oxidize the source of the odor |
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What was dental floss initially made out of (1896)?
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silk
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What is sensodyne?
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toothpaste for sensitive teeth:
-contains strontium chloride (de-sensitizing agent).. this deactivated dental nerves -contain hydroxyapatite to fight sensitive teeth |
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How many people suffer from dental anxiety? dental phobia?
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Dental anxiety = 20% of people
Dental phobia =5% of people |
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Does bleaching work well?
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Yes, especially for smokers or tea drinkers.
-whitening toothpaste doesn't work -strips and home bleaching works -the best way is to get bleached by dentist though (they use hydroxide and UV light to activate it) |
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What disease did King George have?
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Porphyria (South African type)
reddish/brown feces and urine (representing iron overload) |
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Are insects deadly?
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Yes, insects have killed more people in history than any other disease or war
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Crickets as commercial items
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-fishing bait
-cricket poop as fertilizer (KK-432 was changed to kricket krap because it sounded less chemical) -cricket candy (w/ cricket larvae inside of it)... crickets are edible |
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How many insects are there compared to people on the planet?
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200 million insects for each human on Earth
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How do monarch butterflies protect themselves from predators?
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As caterpillars, they eat milkweed which contains cardenolides (cardiac stimulants).. The monarch butterflies themselves have adapted to these cardenolides so they aren't affected. Predators (such as blue jays) learn not to eat monarchs
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How do viceroy butterflies protect themselves against predators?
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They look very similar to monarchs which predators learn not to eat. So viceroys protect themselves by disguise.
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How do grasshoppers protect against predators?
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They are camoflauged with plants. Also eat calactin (heart stimulant) which harms predators so they learn not to eat them.
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How do bombardier beetles protect themselves against predators?
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it stores in two sacs under body hydrogen peroxide in one sac and hydroquinol in the other. there are also enzymes. When it released the two chemicals mix together and form and exothermic reaction (releasing heat). H2O and heat are the products so it releases steam. Steam carries quinome which is a toxic compound. can spray about 10 inches away (the beetle is only 1 inch). humans aren’t that affected by the bombardier beetle because we are so much bigger.
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How do Spanish Flies protect against predators?
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has “cantharidin” inside it. Uses this as a protection for the eggs. It is coated on the eggs and its an irritant so predators won’t eat the eggs. A few milligrams would kill a human. However each beetle produces a fraction of a microgram. It comes from the beetle’s food supply. There is a precursor in the plants it eats called “farnesol”
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Spanish flies as an aphrodisiac:
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The cantaradin in the beetles can effect the ureto-genital tract. Can lead to an unpleasant reaction in males. Called “Priapism” which is a state of sustained erection. French soldiers in Africa all complained of priapism. What had happened was that they had caught and ate frogs and the frogs had been eating cantharide beetles. The cantharin got concentrated in the soldiers leading to priapism. lasted a couple of days then subsided.
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Why are bark beetles bad for the environment?
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destroy trees. they tunnel through the bark of the tree. forests are being devastated by these beetles. They resist pesticides. As they bore through the tree they produce “frass” (the dust produced from tunneling through). This frass has chemicals that attract the females. It is a pheromone to attract females. These chemicals are myrcene (beetle converts it to ipsenol and ipsdenol) and alpha pinene which the beetle converts into cis-verbenol.
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What do black bellied beetles do?
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eats the bark beetle. Tracks down the bark beetle from the pheromones produced.
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What was the first pheromone isolated?
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Adolph Butenandt discovered pheromone of silk worm moth in the 1950s. females release bombykol as pheromone to attract males, 500 000 female moths yielded 6.4 mgs of bombykol…not much is needed for an effect, males sense this pheromone using
antennae receptors…other stereoisomers of bombykol were much less active so very sensitive detection |
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How did we use virgin cockroaches to track down soviet spies?
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75 000 virgin female cockroaches sacrificed to extract periplanone
B which was then placed on soviet spy clothing to track them down (males got excited when suspect was 500 m away) |
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How does the gypsy moth use pheromones?
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Disparlure is their pheromone. It is made synthetically in the lab and is used to lure gypsy moths into traps (since they eat all green leaves, they have devastated forests)
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How do orchids attract thynnine wasps?
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They produce the same pheromone as the female wasp and they have a similar shape so they can get pollenated by males.
Chiloglottone can be made in the laboratory. |
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How do Salt Marsh Moths produce pheromones?
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male caterpillar state eats plants like comfrey which produce pyrrolizidine alkaloids such as monocrotaline which concentrates in its body and is converted into hydroxydanaidal pheromone in the adult moth which is released through coremata glands, salt marsh larvae put on diets with high amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids develop bigger glands and hairs and vice versa
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How do coca plants protect themselves?
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Produce cocaine (an insecticide)
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How do tobacco plants protect themselves?
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Contains nicotine (an insecticide)
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How do mustard and horseradish protect themselves (and get pollenated)?
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produce sinigrin which is converted into allyl
isothiocyanate which is a natural insecticide, cabbage butterfly is attracted by allyl isothiocyanate so pollination occurs |
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How do Queen Butterflies choose their mates?
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The females sense the amt of chemical males have. The greater amount of this toxic alkaloid concentration he has, the more protected her eggs will be from predators.
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How does the male scarlet-bodied wasp moth protect his mate?
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He eats dog fennel (a type of plant) and then builds up toxic alkaloids that he coats the female to protect her from the golden silk spider (their biggest predator)
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What happens when a cherry tomato plant is attacked by an insect predator?
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It releases proteases inhibitors, not only from the site of the bite, but throughout the entire plant
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what is "systemins"
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polypeptides formed in response to injury by insects which signal other parts of a plant to produce defense chemicals such as protease inhibitors.
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What is methyl jasmonate?
|
an intraplant signaling agent generated after an insect bite
that can induce neighboring plants to produce their natural insecticides (antimicrobial, glucosinolates which are toxic and bitter), possible use as insecticide |
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Can plants differentiate between if they are being attacked by planters shears or a predator bite?
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Yes... they recognize
chemicals in herbivore oral secretions such as volicitin aka bug spit and only then do they release methyl salicylate to attract predators |
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how can we stop Colorado potato beetles from eating potato plants?
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We can insert a gene in the potato plants that acts as a natural insecticide against these beetles
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What is cochineal red/
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insect derived dye produced by females of the species, these bugs are grown on cacti and later squashed to extract dye
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What is the most important chemical reaction in the world?
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photosynthesis.. without it there would be no life
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What does chemical free mean?
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It means that there are no synthetic chemicals in the product (obviously everything is made out of chemicals through)... synthetic does not = dangerous though
(the only chemical free thing is a vacuum) |
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Explain why lip balm companies must use large packaging material:
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They use large packaging to prevent theft (it is easy to steal a little lip balm not in large packaging)
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Who was Rachel Carlson?
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The first environmentalist (wrote "Silent Spring"... she was worried about how much DDT farmers were using (was worried it would go up the foodchain through bioaccumulation)..
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Why did Rachel Carlson want to eliminate DDT? what happened when it was no longer used?
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Carlson claimed that birds were laying weaker egg shells from DDT pollution (farmers were using way too much DDT).. It is debatable if this was true. Nonetheless we stopped using DDT and the rate of malaria went up
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How was chemistry viewed in the 60s compared to today?
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In the 60s chemistry was revered.. today it is looked at as evil
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How did Henry Ford try to "go green"
|
he used soy-protein cross linked with formaldehyde (to save using metal)
-never made it past the prototype because no one really cared about “green” then. they weren’t willing to pay the extra. |
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How can soy replace petroleum in making polyurethane?
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Soy oil to make polyols which are component of the plastic polyurethane which can be used in insulation, polyols have not replaced petroleum as the raw material to make polyurethane because of higher prices, soy is renewable
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What can soy protein be used to make?
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Glue... glue together thin layers of timber to make plywood
We usually use urea formaldehyde (non-renewable and also produces harmful byproducts) *found this from studying the "glue" muscles use to stick to rocks |
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What is the most green cleaning agent?
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The original one- soap (non-polluting and works well)
However soap doesnt work well in hard water b/c the minerals precipitate soap out of water |
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What are "syndets" ?
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synthetic detergents. they don't precipitate out of hard water.... unlike soap, they are not biodegradeable... leads to foamy rivers and lakes
*they didn't have branches (which allowed the soap to be biodegradeable) then created synthetic detergents without methyl branches called linear alkyl benzene sulphonates they are biodegradable.. but they only clean well in hot water (which takes energy) -we introduced the nonyl phenol ethoxylates (NPE) to work in cool water (effective detergents that worked in cool water) -but when they degraded they released phenols (estrogen-like qualities).. early puberty |
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What do we currently use as clean, biodegradeable, green, detergents that will work in hard water (even cold water)?
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linear alkyl benzene sulphonate detergents
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Do we have detergents from renewable sources?
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alkyl polyglycosides (made from corn and palm oil.. both renewable) is coming soon
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What is "flexographic printing" ?
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making labels with ink that are flexible that won't crack... they require special kinds of inks. We are looking for renewable sources for these types of inks (use terpene ethers from bark of trees for this ink)
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Is the manufacturing of nylon (from Dupont) a green process? How can we make it green?
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No... it produces nitrous oxide as a byproduct (which is a greenhouse gas)
Answer: Make it a green process by using corn... you can get adipic acid from corn (by using E. coli) DOESN'T PRODUCE NITROUS OXIDE... this isn't economic because it is more expensive than using petroleum, but as the price of oil increases, it might be economically feasible soon |
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Can we make polyester in a green way?
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Polyester plastic made from raw material petroleum, but now E-coli can convert glucose into propanediol which can be used to make the polyester polypropylene terephthalate (petroleum), commercially viable, this polyester has been used to make candy wrappers, fabric called Sorona
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What is polylactic acid (PLA)
|
Plastic material derived completely from corn.. used in sutures and food containers... also can make 10 CDs from 1 ear of corn.
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SC Johnson's Green List:
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They look at each product, determine the raw materials, how it is made, etc. and give it a number to signify how green each product is.
Ex. saran wrap used to be made of PVC (released dioxins when incinerated)... polyethylene can be made into a thin wrap that works nearly as well (and it certainly is greener) |
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How has Nike become green?
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1. switch from petroleum based to water based adehesives
2. eliminated PVCs 3. emphasize recycling |
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What is perchloroethylene?
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It is the main active chemical in dry cleaning. It is carcinogenous. Modern drycleaners try to recycle it, but they lose some anyways.
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How do "organic" drycleaners work?
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They use water under pressure to clean (at room temperature)... They are actually using inorganic compounds
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How did boots (manufacturer of ibuprofin) go green?
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They used atom economy... found out what materials they were using and traced them through all of the reactions ot the final product and found that they were losing a lot of atoms in the process. Found a simpler reaction series to the final product
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Does using a cloth bag at a grocery store helping the world become green?
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No.. only things on a bigscale (i.e. altering the manufacturing of lipitor, phasing out PFOA from teflon, eco-friendly biodegradaeble coffins)
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What is "eternal reef"
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Company will take dead person and prepare them and put them in ocean which will be made into a reef to support sealife..
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What is an example of an old type of biotechnology?
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Using yeast to ferment wine
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What is rennet?
|
It is the enzyme from animal stomachs that convert milk to cheese (discovered by nomads carrying milk in animal stomachs)
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What was Alexander Felmmings (1928) contribution to biotechnology?
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accidental discovery of penicillin. He noticed wherever there was mold, the bacteria were dying. The molecule that that fungus was producing was penicillin. The discovery allowed us to cure gonnorhea and syphilis.
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What important discovery did Crick and Watson find?
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The double helix structure of DNA
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Who was Kelvin Ogilvie?
|
Worked at McGill.. did the first artificial gene synthesis
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What is gene splicing?
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we can isolate a gene, take it, put it in a bacterium to be produced, and sell it... we can do this with insulin (called homalog)
This is also how we produce human growth hormone |
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How can we yield more milk from cows?
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We can inject them with bovine growth hormone (somatotropin).. (this is not genetically modifying the cow). This has been happening in America for more than 20 years. In Canada, it is not economically viable so we do not do it.
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What is the active enzyme necessary for curdling cheese?
How do we artificially produce this enzyme? |
chymosin
Since people are buying less veal, there is less raw material for rennet.. so biotechnology has stepped in... we have found the gene to make chymosin.. we insert this gene into DNA of yeast.. yeast will multiply and act as a factory producing chymosin. First introduced in 1990- the first product of genetic engineering in our food supply.. Almost all the cheese in our diet is made with this technique. |
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What are GMOs?
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Genetically Modified Organisms
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How are grapefruits made?
|
They have only been around for about 100 years.
They are the result of crossbreeding lemons and oranges |
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What is triticale?
|
It is one of the most common used grains today.
It is a combination of both wheat and rye |
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What happens when we expose seeds to radioactivity?
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They will change their DNA. Basically we expose seeds to radiation, plant them and see what happens. The results may be beneficial
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Explain "Roundup Resistant" Canola:
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It is possible to develop canola w/ gene implanted in it to make it resistant to herbicides. Spray some and it will kill all the weeds in the field without killing the canola plants.
This is better than plowing: 1. less tillage 2. less energy 3. less herbicide used 4. better yield |
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What was the first genetically modified food by recombinant DNA technology?
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Tomatoes... They had a gene added to them to prevent over ripening by the gene "polygalacturonase"... This modification didn't work because there was no economic benefit from it.
*there are NO genetically modified tomatoes on the market (people falsely believed that the tomatoes were combined with DNA from arctic flounder, and they didn't want fish genes in their tomatoes... this was completely false, but even if it were true, it would be a single gene out of 25,000 and it wouldn't be the gene that makes it a fish) |
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What are the only 5 currently genetically modified crops?
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Corn, soybeans, canola, cotton, and alfalfa
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What is the "precautionary principle"
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don’t do anything if there is any risk at all. but you cannot have proof of no harm... this is a demand that science cannot meet.
With a zero risk mentality we would have to reject all grain crops because they are commonly contaminated with fungi, rodent droppings, and insect parts (there is a certain amt of rat droppings in bread.. there is testing and if the levels are below a certain level than it is deemed safe). |
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What does the CFIA do?
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They make sure our food supply is safe...
introduction of new food requires submission of biochemical, toxicological, nutritional, allergenicity data, estimate of dietary exposure, anticipated pattern of use, potential harm to non target species (pesticides), potential to spread genetic material to other species, potential of plant to become a weed, impact on biodiversity |
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Why are allergies a concern in cross-breeding?
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Traditional cross-breeding can introduce allergens and toxins.
-celery has been cross-bred over the years to make it have a longer shelf life.. with cross-breeding it has become more allergenic. |
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Explain why we would crossbreed Brazil nuts with soy beans?
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brazil nuts contain methionine. If soy beans used to feed animals contained methionine they would be better for the animals.... problem is that some people are allergic to methionine, so if soy beans intended to feed animals were mixed up with soy beans intended for humans, there could be allergic reactions.
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Can we use cross breeding to reduce allergenicity?
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We are trying to genetically modify peanuts to not have the protein in them that causes the peanut allergy
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Explain why genetically modifying corn can hurt monarch butterflies:
|
We genetically modify corn with bacteria to prevent it from being attacked. The pollen can travel and affect milkweed. Monarch butterflies who eat the milkweed die (people don't want to see these "beautiful" monarchs die)
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What is Bacillus Thuringensis (Bt)?
|
a bacteria with a protein that naturally kills insects. We have put it into corn to kill insects.. This protein is completely indigestible for humans so we are safe from it.
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What happens to corn without bacillus thuringensis?
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It rots ----> fusarium ear rot. (fumonisins = toxins!!!!)
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Do potatoes have Bt in them?
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No.. even though Bt would protect the potato plants from potato beetles, producers don't use it becasue they think people wouldn't buy "genetically modified potatoes"
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What happens to the yield of crops and the use of pesticides where genetic modification is used?
|
1. yield has increased by 15%
2. pesticide use has decreased by 40% ex. In China production costs have decreased by 28%, organophosphate use has been decreased by 80%, and pesticide poisons have been eliminated |
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How can genetic modification help to fight vitamin A deficiency and iron deficiency?
|
In some places of the world, they primarily eat rice (which doesn't contain beta carotene)... We can insert a gene from marigold and make golden rice which provides these people with vitamin A
Similarly, we can add a gene from a bean that contains ferritin to help prevent iron deficiency |
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What is a "protato"
|
We add a gene to make potatoes high in protein
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How do we use genetic modification to limit trans fats in our foods?
|
when ever we produce margarine we produce trans fat.. today it is possible to produce soy beans with low level of linolenic acid... the less linolenic acid you have in soy beans, the less you have to hydrogenate it... so you can produce foods with less trans fats.
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can we "grow" drugs?
|
-genetically engineer rice to produce lysozyme and lactoferrin which are antibacterial proteins found in breast milk, lysozyme rice has helped treat diarrhea in peru 30% shorter duration, 85% total recovery as opposed to 69% in control group, lower rate of relapse, technology not used in the US because of brewing company Anheuser Buschs concern about GMO rice drifting onto their rice crops
-Can insert human TPA gene into goats to make them produce TPA which is used to treat strokes |
