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168 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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smooth muscle
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control digestive systems and other organs
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skeletal muscles / striated muscles
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control movement of the body in relation to the environment
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cardiac muscles
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heart muscles that have properties of skeletal and smooth muscles
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neuromuscular junction
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a synapse between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber
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motor neuron
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antagonistic muscles
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opposing sets of muscles
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Acetylcholine
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always excites skeletal muscles to contract
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flexor muscle
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flexes or raises an appendage
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extensor muscle
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extends an appendage or straightens it
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skeletal muscle types range from:
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fast twitch to slow twitch
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fast twitch
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fibers produce fast contractions but fatigue rapidly
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anaerobic (sprint)
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slow twitch
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fibers produce less vigorous contractions without fatigue
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anaerobic (Marathon)
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preparing and planning of movement
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promoter cortex & supplementary motor cortex
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primary motor cortex
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located in the precentral gurus in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex.
"orders" an outcome |
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promoter cortex & posterior parietal cortex
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some of the brain areas involved in motor control
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promoter cortex
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active during preparations of movement
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posterior parietal cortex
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keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world.
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optic ataxia
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communication between vision and movement are disrupted
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corticospinal tracts
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paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
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messages from the brain must reach the _______ & ______ ____ to _______ ___ _______
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messages from the brain must reach the MEDULLA & SPINAL CORD to CONTROL THE MUSCLES
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what is the specific corticospinal tract?
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1. motor nerve cells
2. upper motor neuron 3. midbrain 4. pons 5. medulla 6. lower motor neuron/spinal cord 7. skeletal muscle nerves divide into many branches. each branch ends at a motor plate of a single muscle fiber |
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the Cerebellum
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balance and coordination.
shifting attention |
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Damage to the cerebellum:
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causes trouble with rapid movements requiring aim/timing
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clapping, speaking, writing
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Basil ganglia
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group of large subcortical structures in the forebrain.
1. caudate nucleus 2. putamen 3. globus pallidas |
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significance of the Basil ganglia?
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critical for learning:
motor skills organizing sequences of movement "automatic" behaviors new habits |
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location of the Basil ganglia
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forebrain
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mirror neurons
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neurons that are active during both performing a movement and while Watching someone else perform the same probably similar movement
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Parkinson's
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muscles tremors
rigidity slow movements difficult initiating physical and mental activity caused by seat of neurons in substantia nigra: loss of dopamine |
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ALS
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Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis or Lou Gehrig's Disease
neurodegenerative disease, degeneration of motor neurons leads to muscle atrophy, unable to move |
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What is the purpose of the visual system? |
WHAT is WHERE? |
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Bottom up processing |
Analysis begins at sensory receptors, travels up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
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Top down processing |
* how our minds interpret what our senses pick up (ie. seeing, hearing) * information processing guided by higher level and mental processes - we construct perceptions based on our experience and expectations |
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Sensory transduction |
Convert energy into neural messages |
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Rods and cones |
Receptors of the visual system |
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The visual system is what kind of organisation? |
Hierarchical Retinatopic |
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Parts of the eye |
1. Cornea 2. Pupil 3. Iris 4. Lens 5. Retina 6. Optic nerve |
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Blind spot |
The optic nerve |
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The retina |
inner surface of the eye Sensitive to light
Contain photoreceptors: rods and cones |
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WHAT do Photoreceptors do? |
Transduce the light energy |
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Neural convergence |
Receptors to bipolar to ganglion cells to optic nerve |
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126 million receptors & 1 million ________ ____ |
120 million rods, 6 million cones and ganglion cells |
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Cones |
Essential for color perception Daytime vision6 millionIn fovea: central focal point in the retina (lots of cones)High acuity vision and color vision Lack of convergence: better detail vision |
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Rods |
120 millionNight time useLocated in retinal peripheryInsensitive to color |
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Retinotopic |
Map of the retina Second organization of the eye |
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Prosopagnosia |
Disorder in which patients cannot recognize faces. face blind. Lesion area: fusiform face area
(Ventral vision stream) |
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Achromotopsia |
Defect in color perception caused by an acquired cerebral lesion Colorblind. Lesion area: v4 occipital-temporal junction (ventral visual stream) |
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Object agnosia |
Impairment of object recognition in the presence of relatively intact elementary visual perception memory in general intellectual function. object blind. Lesion area is interial temporal (ventral visual stream) |
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v4 |
Color |
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Dorsal pathway |
Where |
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ventral pathway |
what |
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Receptive field |
Area out in space / visual field where should a stimulus fall in the area will trigger an activity of that neuron. |
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Where does the information go after v1 |
Higher functioning areas including areas such as v2 v3 v4 Mt |
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Akinetopsia |
Motion blindness |
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Dorsal visual stream |
"where" pathway visually guided movements lesion:Akinetopsia |
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Ventral visual stream |
"What" pathways, color, object perceptions lesion: prosopagnosia, achromotopsia, object agnosia |
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Ensemble encoding |
Different properties encoded by different neurons. The final perception is created by the ensemble of those neurons firing synchronously. requires that ventral temporal neurons don't fire for specific objects but instead for features of that object |
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Somatosensation |
S1: parietal lobeMany senses: touch temperature PAIN pressure |
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Pain neurotransmitters |
Glutamate and substance P |
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Pain pathways |
Cross to attract ascending the contralateral side of the spinal cord |
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Limbic system |
Emotions and memory |
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Opioids and endorphins |
Stop intense pain |
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How to relieve pain |
Opioid mechanism and endorphins |
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Opioid mechanism |
Systems sensitive to opioids drugs and similar chemicals to stop intense pain |
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Capcaicin |
Chemicals found in hot peppers can stimulate these receptors can produce sensation of burning or stinging |
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Olfaction |
Smell |
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Pheromones |
Chemicals released by an animal to affect the behavior of others of the same species |
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Synesthesia |
Joint perception - the experience of one sense in response to stimulation of a different than |
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Frequency |
Pitch |
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Frequency translates to… |
Pitch |
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Amplitude translates to… |
Volume/loudness |
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What is Sound |
"Waves" of air pressure variation |
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what is frequency |
Number of cycles within a given time period |
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What is amplitude |
Difference in pressure between high and low peaks of wave |
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Outer ear |
Pinna Auditory canal |
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Middle ear |
Tympanic membrane: eardrum, ossicles, Oval window |
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Inner ear |
Cochlea, hair cells |
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Cochlea |
a snail shaped structure |
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Hair cells :
What Organization Purpose Location |
Tonotopic organization on the basilar membrane, receptors for the auditory system. Sensory transduction: conversion from environment and convert to action potential |
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Tonotopic |
Auditory |
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Retinatopic Organization |
Vision |
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Tonotopic Organization |
Auditory |
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Tonotopic Organization |
Auditory. Arrangement of the cochlea and auditory nerve fibers. Over the primary auditory cortex, A1 |
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Auditory pathway |
Auditory nerve ➡️ cochlear nuclei ➡️ superior olivary nucleus ➡️ inferior colliculus ➡️ medial geniculate nucleus ➡️ auditory cortex |
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Where is the medial geniculate nucleus |
The thalamus |
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Different parts of the brain interpret _________ ____ |
Different parts of the brain interpret different tones |
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Contralateral |
Pathways cross from one side to the other |
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Ipsilateral |
Pathways do not cross from one side to the other |
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Auditory system contralaterally organized |
For example: left ear: 80% right hemisphere 20% to left hemisphere |
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Where is A1 located and what is its organization |
Along the length of the Gyrus: Heschel gyrus in the sylvian Fissure of the temporal lobe . The organization is tonotopic |
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From primary auditory cortex to… |
What and where or dorsal – ventral |
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Sound localization |
Where the sound is coming from |
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The pinna |
Amplify and provide direction information. Changing the shape of the pinna changes localization abilities |
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Dorsal auditory stream |
Sound localization |
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Ventral auditory stream |
What is the sound speech? who's voice? environmental sounds? |
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Processing sounds into signals |
Soundwaves converted into neutral activity. Sound waves cause vibrations on eardrums. Middle ear transmits vibrations to tiny bones to cochlea in the inner ear. Vibration activate the sensory receptors – hair cells - of basilar membrane within the cochlea, generating an action potential. Auditory nerve send neural messages to the brain. First pass through the thalamus, then on to auditory cortex in temporal lobe. |
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Hair cell damage makes what harder? |
Harder to hear as you age. Hair cells do not regenerate in humans |
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SRY Gene and what it does? |
Sex determining region of y chromosome. Causes the development of male genitalia Produces testosterone Lack of SRY gene expression develops ovaries If SRY gene is inserted into female mice testes develop |
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Androgenes & Estrogenes |
Categories of chemicals (not chemicals) Promote development of typically masculine or feminine features |
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Androgenes |
Group of primarily male hormone ----testosterone Often referred to as the male hormones because of higher level than in women |
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Estrogens |
Extradiol Referred to as feminine hormones because women have higher levels |
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Organizing effects |
Permanent (occur at sensitive stages of development - before birth in humans) Determine whether brain and body will develop male or female |
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Activating effect |
Temporary (occur at any time of life) |
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What is a sensitive period? |
Before birth in humans |
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Role of testosterone on sexual differentation |
High levels: male genetalia Low levels: female genitalia |
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Effect of sex hormones on early childhood behavior |
Girls born to women with high testosterone levels at birth will show preference for boys toys Boys born to women with high phthalate levels show a preference for girls toys Toy preference are a result of both prenatal hormones and child-rearing experiences |
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How does testosterone influence male sexual behavior? |
Men with higher testosterone levels seek multiple partners Men with lower testosterone levels are more likely to marry |
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How does testosterone influence female sexual behavior? |
Women with higher testosterone levels seek multiple partners Single women have higher testosterone levels than women in committed relationships Testosterone levels appear to moderate sexual interest |
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Vasopressin |
A hormone synthesized by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland Associated with establishing a long term bonds and some species Facilitates olfactory recognition |
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Oxytocin |
Pituitary hormone also important for reproductive behavior Plays a role in: Maternal behavior and social attachment Released during orgasm and triggers relaxation Pair bonding between meeting partners and mother and infant Other social behaviors such as recognizing familiar faces Stimulates contractions of the uterus during delivery of a baby and stimulates the mammary gland |
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Darwin's theory of evolution |
Individuals whose genes help them survive will produce more children and the next generation will have more of these genes Sexual selection: genes that make an individual more appealing to the opposite sex will increase the probability of reproduction |
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What do men seek in mates? |
Tend to prefer a young partner Evolution suggest that this preference exists because younger women are more likely to be fertile than older women Are interested in brief sexual relationships with multiple partners because such a strategy increases the likelihood of their genes being passed along to the next generation |
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What do women seek in mates? |
Prefer mates who are likely to be good providers Selecting a father who is likely to be a good provider aid the women while she is pregnant or caring for a child |
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What do both men and women look for in mates? |
Healthy Intelligent Honest Physically attractive |
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Gender identity |
How we identify sexually and what we call ourselves |
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Intersexes |
People that have anatomy intermediate between male or female (also called hermaphrodite) |
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Issues of gender assignment and rearing |
Many genetic males born without a penis or who had the penis accidentally removed and who were raised as a girl asked to be reassigned as males Many who remain female feel discontents or conflict with being female Such cases indicate that hormones play a role in gender identities |
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Prenatal predisposition to sexual orientation |
Exposure to stress and alcohol Stress releases hormones: elevates corticosterone: decreases testosterone release Both result in changes in the structures of the nervous system |
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Genetic predisposing sexual orientation factors |
larger anterior commissure and suprachiasmatic nucleus (hypothalamus) Smaller neurons in the third interstatial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH - 3) |
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Brain differences as a function of sexual orientation |
Hypothalamus area inah - 3: 2-3 times larger in heterosexual men than in homosexual men |
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What is memory? |
Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information "Product of learning" Lasting representation that is reflected in thought, experience or behavior Learning is the acquisition of such representations |
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Classical conditioning |
Pavlov with the dogs and the bells |
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Operant or instrumental conditioning |
Shocking the mice in the maze |
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Karl Lashley |
Believed that a knife cut should abolish the newly learned response.
Set out to prove this by searching for such engrams or physical representation of what has been learned |
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Penciled and Electrical Stimulation |
Electrically stimulated cortex in temporal lobe of patients preparing to undergo surgery for severe Epilepsy patients describe sensations that sounded like a lucid nation or recollections of past experiences |
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Hebbian learning |
"Cells that fire together wire together" Such synapses may be critical for many kinds of associative learning |
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Long term potentiation |
A long-lasting strengthening of a synapse Thought to be associated with memory Occurs when one or more axons bombard a dendrite with stimulation ----- Leaves the synapse potentiate it for a period of time and then their own is more responsive |
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LTP in hippocampal neurons how does it work? |
Often depends on changes to glutamate receptors AMPA and NMDA |
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LTP and memory |
As learning occurs a memory is being formed: Lots of glutamate is released into synapse by more than one axon Dendrites receptors receive lots of glutamate Causes a lot of sodium to rush into dendrite Dendrite is depolarized and magnesium is positively charged and like charges repel each other Dislodges magnesium molecules so NMDA receptor now allows sodium and calcium to enter Calcium triggers proteins to make more AMPA receptors, move on to better positions and grow more dendritic spines. These changes increase the later responsiveness of the dendrite to incoming glutamate |
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Short term memory |
Memory of events that have just occurred |
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Long term memory |
Memory of events from times further back |
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Types of long-term memory |
Explicit (declarative): what these facts mean Implicit (nondeclarative): how to perform something |
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Types of explicit long term memory and location |
Semantic (facts) Episodic (events) Location: medial temporal lobe |
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Types of implicit long term memory and location |
Procedural (skills and habits) Location: basal ganglia Associative learning (classical and operant conditioning) Location: amygdala / cerebellum |
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How are the basal ganglia and cerebellum involved in learning and memory? |
Location of implicit memory |
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How is the medial temporal lobe involved in learning and memory? |
Location of explicit memories |
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Episodic memories |
Memories for events, situations and experiences Example: time, place, people involved in the event Flashbulb memories: the clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Example: do you remember where you are September 11th 2001 |
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Semantic memories |
Memories for facts Example: world knowledge |
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Implicit / nondeclarative memory |
Retention independent of conscious recollection |
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Procedural memory |
Motor skills and habits |
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Implicit vs explicit memory test |
Implicit: word stem completion Example: Sp____ complete with any word Explicit: can't recall Example: Sp____ complete word from studied list |
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What is amnesia? causes of amnesia |
The loss of memory Damage to hippocampus thalamic structures Korsakoff syndrome (severe vitamin b-1 deficiency) Alzheimers |
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Types of amnesia in the differences between them |
Retrograde: cannot remember old memory Anterograde: cannot form new episodic of memories |
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Patient hm |
Severe epilepsies 10 years old Treated with surgery to bilaterally remove medial temporal lobes including hippocampus |
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What could HM do? |
Had normal IQ Remember events / facts in his distant past even from his childhood Normal short term memory Can form implicit memory Example: learn mirror reverse read and mirror trace but he would have no explicit memory of ever performing this task) |
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What could HM not do? |
Extreme anterograde amnesia: Could not learn new facts or remember information about events since his surgery Cannot remember things he did, could not remember people he met, cannot keep track of his age, cannot recognize himself Partial retrograde amnesia: Could not remember events / facts in the years just before his surgery General knowledge intact but stuck in time Example: could not learn words introduced after 1953 Severely impaired his ability to function in everyday life |
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HM brain vs. normal brain |
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What have we learned from HM? |
Our explicit memories and implicit memories are located in different parts of the brain |
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Clive Wearing |
Herpes simplex encephalitis ---- affected his medial temporal lobe in the 1980s Prior to getting the virus he was a rising musician Now has severe anterograde amnesia and his working memory abilities and general executive function remain intact like HM |
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Function of the medial temporal lobe |
Important in memory formation Important in episodic memory: information about the conscious source of memory |
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How is the hippocampus involved in memory? |
Help create new memories |
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What are other regions important in learning and memory? |
The hippocampus Parahippocampal cortex Entorhinal cortex perirhinal cortex |
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What is Korsakoff syndrome? |
Impairment in episodic memories, sparing implicit memories Thiamine deficiencies result from chronic alcoholism and impede the ability of the brain to metabolize glucose Untreated thiamine deficiencies damage dorsomedial thalamus, main input the prefrontal cortex Leads to a lot of shrinkage of neurons in the brain Other symptoms include apathy, confusion, forgetting and confabulation (taking guesses to fill in gaps in memory), resembles patience with damage to prefrontal cortex Chronic alcoholics have a vitamin B deficiency: Destroys thalamus and causes stroke |
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What are plaques and tangles and how are the associated with Alzheimer's disease? |
Plaques: abnormal clusters of protein fragments build up between nerve cells Neurofibrillary tangles: made up of twisted strands of another protein, dead and dying nerve cells contain these tangles |
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What is cognition? |
Thinking Reasoning Language Learning Memory Attention Perception Problem solving |
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Lateralization of function |
Each hemisphere of the brain is specialized for different functions |
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Corpus callosum |
Left and right hemisphere exchange information primarily through a set of axons. Allows each hemisphere of the brain access information from both sides Information crosses over to the other side with a brief delay Damage to the corpus callosum prevent the two hemispheres from exchanging information |
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Split brain patient |
Corpus callosum is severed and visual fields cannot communicate contralaterally |
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What is language? |
Lexicon / words and grammar |
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What language is not |
Language is not communication Language is not speech Language is not thought |
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What is meant by language is generative? |
We can create new words and combinations of words to convey a potentially infinite number of thoughts |
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Theories of language evolution |
Language evolved as a by-product of overall brain development and intelligence Language evolved as a brain specialization Language evolved as an extra brain module Language acquisition device is a built-in mechanism for acquiring language A mutation on the FOXP2 gene can affect language abilities Social interactions among people, in particular parents and children, favored the evolution of language Most researchers agree that humans have a specially evolved "something" that enables them to learn language easily ---- certain brain areas are indeed necessary for language ---- but same areas are also necessary for other (memory and music perception) |
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Sensitive period for language |
Research suggests a sensitive period exists for the learning of language ---- no early language exposure can lead to permanent impairment Learning of a second language: younger is better Children excel at learning pronunciation and unfamiliar aspects of grammar Adults are better at memorizing vocabulary but not as good with pronunciation |
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Language and bilingualism |
No sharp cutoff exists or second language learning but those who begin after age 12 rarely gain fluency equal to a native speaker Most people who are bilingual from a young age show bilateral activity during speech for both languages Second language learners after age 6 tend to show only left-hemisphere activities A second language recruit same brain areas as the first language |
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Language and ASL |
Rare cases of children not exposed to language indicate limited ability to learn language later Deaf children unable to learn spoken language and not given the opportunity to learn sign language was young reveals: ---- Little development of skills to use any language later ---- Early exposure to a language increases ability to learn another language later Neural organization for language is similar in hearing and deaf people |
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Brain regions involved in language |
Speech production: Left hemisphere Inferior frontal cortex Speech perception: Bilateral, both hemispheres Superior temporal lobe |
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What is aphasia? |
Deficits in language production and comprehension Damage to different nodes in language circuit result in different deficits Major types of aphasia: Nonfluent: Broca's Fluent: Wernicke's |
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Fluent vs nonfluent aphasia |
non fluent aphasia: also known as Broca's aphasia
Location: inferior frontal cortex
Deficits in: Speaking Production of effortful spoken language Pronunciation Patients are aware of their deficit Fluent aphasia: also known as Wernicke's aphasia Deficits in: Comprehension Producing meaningful speech Unaware of deficit |
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aphasias |
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