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91 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology |
is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. |
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Neuroscience |
Theapproach that views behavior from theperspective of the brain, the nervoussystem, and other biological functions. |
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psychodynamic |
perspective argue that behavior is motivated by inner forces and confl icts aboutwhich we have little awareness or control. They view dreams and slips of the tongueas indications of what a person is truly feeling within a seething cauldron of uncon-scious psychic activity. |
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behavioral perspective |
The approachthat suggests that observable, measur-able behavior should be the focusof study. |
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cognitive perspective |
focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world. The emphasisis on learning how people comprehend and represent the outside world within them-selves and how our ways of thinking about the world infl uence our behavior. |
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humanistic |
perspective instead suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, andbe in control of their lives and behavior. Humanistic psychologists maintain that eachof us has the capacity to seek and reach fulfi llment. |
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scientifi c method |
the approach used by psychologists to systemati-cally acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena ofinterest. As illustrated in Figure 1, it consists of four main steps: (1) identifying ques-tions of interest, (2) formulating an explanation, (3) carrying out research designed tosupport or refute the explanation, and (4) communicating the fi ndings. |
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Theories |
broadexplanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. They provide aframework for understanding the relationships among a set of otherwise unorganizedfacts or principles. |
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hypothesis |
a prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested. Hypothesesstem from theories; they help test the underlying soundness of theories. |
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archival research |
existing data, such as census documents, college records, online databases, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis. For example, college transcripts may be used to determine if gender differences exist in academic performance |
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naturalistic observation |
the investigator observes some naturally occurringbehavior and does not make a change in the situation. For example, a researcher inves-tigating helping behavior might observe the kind of help given to victims in a high-crime area of a city. |
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survey research |
a sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest(a population ) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.Survey methods have become so sophisticated that even with a very small sampleresearchers are able to infer with great accuracy how a larger group would respond.For instance, a sample of just a few thousand voters is suffi cient to predict within oneor two percentage points who will win a presidential election—if the representativesample is chosen with care |
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case study |
an in-depth, intensive inves-tigation of a single individual or a small group. Case studies often includepsychological testing , a procedure in which a carefully designed set of questions is usedto gain some insight into the personality of the individual or group |
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experiment |
The investigation of therelationship between two (or more)variables by deliberately producing achange in one variable in a situation andobserving the effects of that change onother aspects of the situation. |
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experimental manipulation |
Thechange that an experimenter deliber-ately produces in a situation |
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Neurons |
nervecells, are the basic elements of the nervous system. Their quantity is staggering—perhaps as many as 1 trillion neurons throughout the body are involved in the controlof behavior (Boahen, 2005). |
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dendrite |
A cluster of fi bers at one endof a neuron that receives messages fromother neurons. |
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axon |
The part of the neuron that carriesmessages destined for other neurons. |
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terminal buttons |
Small bulges at theend of axons that send messages toother neurons. |
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myelin sheath |
A protective coatingof fat and protein that wraps aroundthe axon. To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another he myelin sheath also serves to increase the velocity with which electricalimpulses travel through axons. |
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synapse |
The space between twoneurons where the axon of a sendingneuron communicates with the den-drites of a receiving neuron by usingchemical messages. |
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neurotransmitters |
Chemicals thatcarry messages across the synapse to thedendrite (and sometimes the cell body)of a receiver neuron. |
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central nervous system |
Thepart of the nervous system that includesthe brain and spinal cord. |
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spinal cord |
A bundle of neurons thatleaves the brain and runs down thelength of the back and is the main meansfor transmitting messages between thebrain and the body |
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peripheral nervous system |
The partof the nervous system that includes theautonomic and somatic subdivisions;made up of neurons with long axonsand dendrites, it branches out from thespinal cord and brain and reaches theextremities of the body |
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endocrine system |
A chemicalcommunication network that sendsmessages throughout the body via thebloodstream. |
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hormones |
Chemicals that circulatethrough the blood and regulate thefunctioning or growth of the body. |
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central core |
The “old brain,” whichcontrols basic functions such as eatingand sleeping and is common to allvertebrates. |
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cerebellum |
Thepart of the brain that controls bodilybalance |
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thalamus |
The part of the brain locatedin the middle of the central core thatacts primarily to relay information aboutthe senses. |
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hypothalamus |
A tiny part of thebrain, located below the thalamus, thatmaintains homeostasis and produces andregulates vital behavior, such as eating,drinking, and sexual behavior. |
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limbic system |
The part of the brainthat controls eating, aggression, andreproduction. |
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cerebral cortex |
The “new brain,”responsible for the most sophisticatedinformation processing in the brain;contains four lobes. consists of four major sections called lobes . |
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lobes |
The cerebral cortex consists of four major sections called lobes . Each lobe hasspecialized areas that relate to particular functions. If we take a side view of the brain,the frontal lobes lie at the front center of the cortex and the parietal lobes lie behindthem. The temporal lobes are found in the lower-center portion of the cortex, with theoccipital lobes lying behind them. These four sets of lobes are physically separated bydeep grooves called sulci . Figure 5 shows the four areas. |
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Parietal |
- somatosensory |
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temporal |
primary auditory, wernicke's area |
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Occipital |
visual association |
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frontal |
motor area, broca |
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motor area |
The part of the cortex thatis largely responsible for the body’svoluntary movement. Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a specifi c locale within the body |
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sensory area |
The sensory area of the cortex includes three regions: one that cor-responds primarily to body sensations (including touch and pressure), one relating tosight, and a third relating to sound. For instance, the somatosensory area in the parietallobe encompasses specifi c locations associated with the ability to perceive touch andpressure in a particular area of the body. |
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association areas |
One of the majorregions of the cerebral cortex; the siteof the higher mental processes, such asthought, language, memory, and speech. |
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hemispheres |
control motion in—and receive sensation from—the side of the body opposite their location. The left hemisphere of the brain, then,generally controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls theleft side of the body. Thus, damage to the right side of the brain is typically indicatedby functional diffi culties in the left side of the body. |
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lateralization |
The dominance of onehemisphere of the brain in specifi cfunctions, such as language For example, for most people, language processing occurs more in the left side ofthe brain. In general, the left hemisphere concentrates more on tasks that requireverbal competence, such as speaking, reading, thinking, and reasoning. left hemisphere tends to process information sequentially, one bit at a time The right hemisphere has its own strengths, particularly in nonverbal areas such asthe understanding of spatial relationships, recognition of patterns and drawings, music,and emotional expression. The right hemisphere tends to process information globally,considering it as a whole |
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Consciousness |
the awareness of the sensations,thoughts, and feelings we experience at a given moment.Consciousness is our subjective understanding of both theenvironment around us and our private internal world,unobservable to outsiders. In waking consciousness , we are awake and aware of ourthoughts, emotions, and perceptions. All other states ofconsciousness are considered altered states of consciousness .Among these, sleeping and dreaming occur naturally; drug useand hypnosis, in contrast, are methods of deliberately alteringone’s state of consciousness. |
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rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |
sleepSleep occupying 20% of an adult’ssleeping time, characterized by in-creased heart rate, blood pressure, andbreathing rate; erections; eye move-ments; and the experience of dreaming. |
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insomnia |
diffi culty sleeping—a condition |
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Sleep apnea |
condition in which a person has diffi culty breathing while sleeping. The result isdisturbed, fi tful sleep, and a signifi cant loss of REM sleep, as the person is constantlyreawakened when the lack of oxygen becomes great enough to trigger a wakingresponse. |
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sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) |
a mysterious killer of seemingly normalinfants who die while sleeping |
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Night terrors |
sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that are accompanied byextreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal. Usually occurring in stage 4 sleep,night terrors may be so frightening that a sleeper awakens with a shriek. Althoughnight terrors initially produce great agitation, victims usually can get back to sleepfairly quickly. They are far less frequent than nightmares, and, unlike nightmares, theytypically occur during slow-wave, non-REM sleep. They occur most frequently in chil-dren between the ages of 3 and 8 |
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Narcolepsy |
uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while a personis awake. No matter what the activity—holding a heated conversation, exercising, ordriving—a narcoleptic will suddenly fall asleep. People with narcolepsy go directly fromwakefulness to REM sleep, skipping the other stages. |
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Circadian rhythms |
(from the Latin circa diem ,or “about a day”) are biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a24-hour cycle. Sleeping and waking, for instance, occur naturally to the beat of aninternal pacemaker that works on a cycle of about 24 hours. Several other bodilyfunctions, such as body temperature, hormone production, and blood pressure, alsofollow circadian rhythms |
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daydreams |
fantasies that people construct whileawake. Unlike dreaming that occurs during sleep, daydreams are more under people’scontrol. Therefore, their content is often more closely related to immediate events inthe environment than is the content of the dreams that occur during sleep. Althoughthey may include sexual content, daydreams also pertain to other activities or eventsthat are relevant to a person’s life. |
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hypnosis |
a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to thesuggestions of others. In some respects, it appears that they are asleep. Yet other aspectsof their behavior contradict this notion, for people are attentive to the hypnotist’ssuggestions and may carry out bizarre or silly suggestions. |
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Meditation |
a learned technique for refocusing attention that bringsabout an altered state of consciousness. Meditation typically consists of therepetition of a mantra —a sound, word, or syllable—over and over. In someforms of meditation, the focus is on a picture, fl ame, or specifi c part of thebody. Regardless of the nature of the particular initial stimulus, the key tothe procedure is concentrating on it so thoroughly that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of con-sciousness. |
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Psychoactive drugs |
infl uence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behav-ior. Yet even this category of drugs is common in most of our lives. If you have ever hada cup of coffee or sipped a beer, you have taken a psychoactive drug. |
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Addictive drugs |
produce a physiological or psychological dependence (orboth) in the user, and withdrawal from the drugs leads to a craving for the drugthat may be overpowering and nearly irresistible. In physiological dependence, thebody becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that itcannot function without it. In psychological dependence, people believe that theyneed the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living. Although we generallyassociate addiction with drugs such as heroin, everyday sorts of drugs, such ascaffeine (found in coffee) and nicotine (found in cigarettes), have addictive aspectsas wel |
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stimulants |
Drugs that have an arousaleffect on the central nervous system,causing a rise in heart rate, bloodpressure, and muscular tension |
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depressants |
Drugs that slow downthe nervous system |
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Narcotics |
are drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety. Two of themost powerful narcotics, morphine and heroin, are derived from the poppy seed pod.Although morphine is used medically to control severe pain, heroin is illegal in theUnited States. This status has not prevented its widespread use. |
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hallucinogen |
A drug that is capableof producing hallucinations, or changesin the perceptual process |
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Learning |
is a relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience. |
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Classical conditioning |
typeof learning in which a neutral stimulus (such as the experimenter’s footsteps) comesto elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus (such as food) that naturallybrings about that response. (pavlov) |
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neutral stimulus |
A stimulus that,before conditioning, does not naturallybring about the response of interest. |
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unconditioned stimulus (UCS) |
A stimulus that naturally brings about aparticular response without havingbeen learned. |
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unconditioned response (UCR) |
A response that is natural and needsno training (e.g., salivation at the smellof food). |
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conditioned stimulus (CS) |
Aonce-neutral stimulus that has beenpaired with an unconditioned stimulusto bring about a response formerlycaused only by the unconditionedstimulus. |
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conditioned response (CR) |
Aresponse that, after conditioning,follows a previously neutral stimulus(e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell). |
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Operant conditioning |
is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthenedor weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. When we saythat a response has been strengthened or weakened, we mean that it has been mademore or less likely to recur regularly. (skinner box) |
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reinforcement |
The process by whicha stimulus increases the probability thata preceding behavior will be repeated.reinforcer Any stimulus that increasesthe probability that a preceding behav-ior will occur again. |
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positive reinforcer |
A stimulus addedto the environment that brings aboutan increase in a preceding response |
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negative reinforcer |
An unpleasantstimulus whose removal leads to anincrease in the probability that apreceding response will be repeatedin the future |
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punishment |
A stimulus thatdecreases the probability that aprevious behavior will occur again. |
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shaping |
The process of teaching acomplex behavior by rewarding closerand closer approximations of thedesired behavior.Shaping allows even lower animals to learn complex responses that would never occurnaturally, ranging from lions jumping through hoops, dolphins rescuing divers lost at sea,or rodents fi nding hidden land mines. Shaping also underlies the learning of many complexhuman skills. For instance, the organization of most textbooks is based on the principlesof shaping. Typically, information is presented so that new material builds on previouslylearned concepts or skills. Thus, the concept of shaping could not be presented until wehad discussed the more basic principles of operant learning |
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behavior modifi cation |
A formalizedtechnique for promoting the frequencyof desirable behaviors and decreasingthe incidence of unwanted ones. |
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observational learning |
Learning byobserving the behavior of anotherperson, or model |
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motivation |
thefactors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms. Motiva-tion has biological, cognitive, and social aspects, and the complexity of the concepthas led psychologists to develop a variety of approaches. All seek to explain the energythat guides people’s behavior in specifi c directions. |
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instincts |
inbornpatterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned. According toinstinct approaches to motivation, people and animals are born preprogrammed withsets of behaviors essential to their survival. Those instincts provide the energy thatchannels behavior in appropriate directions. Hence, sexual behavior may be a responseto an instinct to reproduce, and exploratory behavior may be motivated by an instinctto examine one’s territory. |
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drive |
ismotivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfi ll a need. Many basicdrives, such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, are related to biological needs of the bodyor of the species as a whole. These are called primary drives . Primary drives contrastwith secondary drives in which behavior fulfi lls no obvious biological need. In second-ary drives, prior experience and learning bring about needs. For instance, some peoplehave strong needs to achieve academically and professionally. We can say that theirachievement need is refl ected in a secondary drive that motivates their behavior(McKinley et al., 2004; Seli, 2007). |
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Homeostasis |
the body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state, underlies primarydrives. Many fundamental needs, including the needs for food, water, stable body temperature,and sleep, operate via homeostasis |
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self-actualization |
A state of self-fulfi llment in which people realizetheir highest potential in their ownunique way. |
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obesity |
Body weight that is more than20% above the average weight for a per-son of a particular height. |
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weight set point |
The particular levelof weight that the body strives tomaintain. |
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metabolism |
The rate at which food isconverted to energy and expended bythe body. |
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anorexia nervosa |
A severe eatingdisorder in which people may refuse toeat while denying that their behaviorand appearance—which can becomeskeleton-like—are unusual. |
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bulimia |
A disorder in which a personbinges on large quantities of food,followed by efforts to purge the foodthrough vomiting or other means. |
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androgens |
Male sex hormonessecreted by the testes. |
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estrogens progesterone, |
female sex hormones. |
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need for achievement |
A stable,learned characteristic in which a personobtains satisfaction by striving for andachieving challenging goals. |
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need for affi liation |
An interest inestablishing and maintaining relationshipswith other people |
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need for power |
A tendency to seekimpact, control, or infl uence over othersand to be seen as a powerful individual. |
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emotions |
Feelings that generally haveboth physiological and cognitive ele-ments and that infl uence behavior. |
